Federal Aviation
Administration
Conducting an
Effective
Flight Review
Conducting an Effective Flight Review
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………… iii
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………. 1
Step 1: Preparation...………………………………….………………………….. 2
Managing Expectations…..………………………………………………. 2
Assignments….………..………………………………………………….. 3
Regulatory Review……….....……………..………………………… 3
Cross-Country Flight Plan…………………………………………... 3
Step 2: Ground Review…………………………………………..……………….. 4
Regulatory Review……….……………………………………………….. 4
XC Flight Plan Review……………………………………………………. 4
Weather Decision-Making………………………………………...... 4
Risk Management & Personal Minimums………………………… 4
General Aviation Security Issues……………………………………...... 5
Step 3: Flight Activities…….…………………………………………………….. 7
Physical Airplane (Basic Skills)………………………………………….. 7
Mental Airplane (Systems Knowledge)…………………………………. 7
Aeronautical Decision-Making…………………………………………… 7
Step 4: Post flight Debriefing……………………………………………………. 9
Step 5: Aeronautical Health Maintenance & Improvement……………….... 10
Personal Minimums Checklist………………………………………….... 10
Personal Proficiency Practice Plan…………………………………...… 10
Training Plan ……………………………………………………….....….. 10
Appendices….……………………………………………………………………..... 11
1 - CFI’s Flight Review Checklist……………………………….............. 12
2 - Pilot’s Aeronautical History…………………………………………… 13
3 - Regulatory Review Guide…………………………………………….. 14
4 - Pilot’s Cross-Country Checklist……………………………………… 15
5 - Three-P Risk Management Process……………………………...…. 16
6 - GA Security Checklist……………………………………………….... 17
7 - Personal Minimums Worksheets…………………………………….. 18
8 - Personal Proficiency Practice Plan………………………………….. 24
9 - Personal Training Plan……………………………………………….. 25
10 - Resources……………..……………………………………………….. 26
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Acknowledgements
This guide has been developed with assistance, contributions, and suggestions
from a number of general aviation pilots and flight instructors. Special thanks are
due to Pat Cannon, Turbine Aircraft Services; Jens Hennig, General Aviation
Manufacturers Association; Sandy and JoAnn Hill, National Association of Flight
Instructors; Sean Lane, ASA Publishing; Jim Lauerman, Avemco; Stan
Mackiewicz, National Air Transportation Association; Arlynn McMahon, Aero-
Tech Incorporated; Tim McSwain, USAIG; Rusty Sachs, National Association of
Flight Instructors; Roger Sharp, Cessna Pilot Centers; Jackie Spanitz; ASA;
Howard Stoodley, Manassas Aviation Center; Michele Summers, Embry-Riddle
Aeronautical University; and Max Trescott, SJFlight.
It is intended to be a living document that incorporates comments, suggestions,
and ideas for best practices from GA instructors like you. Please direct
comments and ideas for future iterations to: [email protected].
Happy – and safe – flying!
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Introduction
General aviation (GA) pilots enjoy a level
of flexibility and freedom unrivaled by their
aeronautical contemporaries. Airline,
corporate, and military flight operations
are all strictly regulated, and each uses a
significant degree of internal oversight to
ensure compliance. GA has relatively few
of these regulatory encumbrances. As a
result, safety depends heavily upon the
development and maintenance of each
individual pilot’s basic skills, systems
knowledge, and aeronautical decision-making skills.
The purpose of the flight review required by Title 14 of the Code of Federal
Regulations (14 CFR) 61.56 is to provide for a regular evaluation of pilot skills
and aeronautical knowledge. AC 61-98A states that the flight review is also
intended to offer pilots the opportunity to design a personal currency and
proficiency program in consultation with a certificated flight instructor (CFI). In
effect, the flight review is the aeronautical equivalent of a regular medical
checkup and ongoing health improvement program. Like a physical exam, a
flight review may have certain “standard” features (e.g., review of specific
regulations and maneuvers). However, just as the physician should tailor the
exam and follow-up to the individual’s characteristics and needs, the CFI should
tailor both the flight review and any follow-up plan for training and proficiency to
each pilot’s skill, experience, aircraft, and personal flying goals.
To better accomplish these objectives, this guide, intended for use in conjunction
with AC 61-98A, offers ideas for conducting an effective flight review. It also
provides tools for helping that pilot develop a personalized currency, proficiency,
risk management, and “aeronautical health maintenance and improvement”
program. A key part of this process is the development of risk management
strategies and realistic personal minimums. You can think of these minimums as
individual “operations specifications” that can help guide the pilot’s decisions and
target areas for personal proficiency flying and future training.
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Step 1: Preparation
Managing Expectations: You have
probably seen it, or perhaps even
experienced it yourself: pilot and
CFI check the clock, spend exactly
one hour reviewing 14 CFR Part 91
operating rules, and then head out
for a quick pass through the basic
maneuvers generally known as
“airwork.” The pilot departs with a
fresh flight review endorsement and,
on the basis of the minimum two
hours required in 14 CFR 61.56, can
legally operate for the next two
years. This kind of flight review may be adequate for some pilots, but for others
– especially those who do not fly on a regular basis – it is not. To serve the
aviation safety purpose for which it was intended, therefore, the flight review
must be far more than an exercise in watching the clock and checking the box.
AC 61-98A states that the flight review is “an instructional service designed to
assess a pilot’s knowledge and skills.” The regulations are even more specific:
14 CFR 61.56 states that the person giving the flight review has the discretion to
determine the maneuvers and procedures necessary for the pilot to demonstrate
“safe exercise of the privileges of the pilot certificate.” It is thus a proficiency-
based exercise, and it is up to you, the instructional service provider, to
determine how much time and what type of instruction is required to ensure that
the pilot has the necessary knowledge and skills for safe operation.
Managing pilot expectations is key to ensuring that you don’t later feel pressured
to conduct a “minimum time” flight review for someone whose aeronautical skills
are rusty. When a pilot schedules a flight review, use the form in Appendix 2 to
find out not only about total time, but also about type of flying (e.g., local leisure
flying, or cross-country flying for personal transportation) and recent flight
experience. You also need to know if the pilot wants to combine the flight review
with a new endorsement or aircraft checkout. Offer an initial estimate of how
much time to plan for ground and flight training. How much time is “enough” will
vary from pilot to pilot. Someone who flies the same airplane 200 hours every
year may not need as much time as someone who has logged only 20 hours
since the last flight review, or a pilot seeking a new endorsement in conjunction
with the flight review. For pilots who have not flown at all for several years, a
useful “rule of thumb” is to plan one hour of ground training and one hour of flight
training for every year the pilot has been out of the cockpit. As appropriate, you
can also suggest time in an aircraft training device (ATD), or a session of night
flying for pilots whose activities include flying (especially VFR) after dark.
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In preparation for the flight review session, give the pilot two assignments.
Review of Part 91: The regulations (14 CFR 61.56) state
that the flight review must include a review of the current
general operating and flight rules set out in Part 91. The
Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) also contains
information that pilots need to know. Have the pilot
complete the Flight Review Preparation Course now
available in the Aviation Learning Center at
www.faasafety.gov in advance of your session and bring
a copy of the completion certificate to the flight review.
he pilot review material at his or her own pace and focus
attention on areas of particular interest. Alternatively, provide a copy of the list in
Appendix 3 as a self-study guide.
The online course lets t
Cross-Country Flight Plan Assignment: Many people learn to
fly for personal transportation, but the cross-country flight
planning skills learned for practical test purposes can become
rusty if they are not used on a regular basis. Structuring the
flight review as a short cross-country (i.e., 30-50 miles from
the home airport) is an excellent way to refresh the pilot’s flight
planning skills. Ask the pilot to plan a VFR cross-country to
another airport, ideally one that he or she has not previously
visited. Be sure to specify that the flight plan should include
consideration of runway lengths, weather, expected aircraft
performance, alternatives, length of runways to be used, traffic delays, fuel
requirements, terrain avoidance strategies, and NOTAM/TFR information. The
GA Pilot’s Guide to Preflight Weather Planning, Weather Self-Briefings, and
Weather Decision-Making may be of help to the pilot in this part of the exercise.
Proficiency in weight and balance calculations is critical as well. If the pilot
regularly flies with passengers, consider asking for calculations based on
maximum gross weight.
It is within your discretion to require a “manual” flight plan created with a
sectional chart, plotter, and E6B. In real-world flying, however, many pilots today
use online flight planning software for basic information and calculations.
Appropriate use of these tools can enhance safety in several ways: they provide
precise course and heading information; the convenience may encourage more
consistent use of a flight plan; and automating manual calculations leaves more
time to consider weather, performance, terrain, alternatives, and other aspects of
the flight. Encouraging the pilot to use his or her preferred online tool will give
you a more realistic picture of real-world behavior, and the computer-generated
plan will give you an excellent opportunity to point out both the advantages and
the potential pitfalls of this method.
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Step 2: Ground Review
The regulations (14 CFR 61.56) specify only that the ground portion of the flight
review must include “a review of the current general operating and flight rules of
Part 91.” This section offers guidance on conducting that review. It also
provides guidance on additional topics that you should address. These include:
• Review and discussion of the pre-assigned cross-country (XC) flight plan,
with special emphasis on weather and weather decision-making; risk
management and individual personal minimums; and
• General aviation security (TFRs, aircraft security, and airport security).
Regulatory Review. Since most GA pilots do not read rules on a regular basis,
this review is an important way to refresh the pilot’s knowledge of information
critical to aviation safety, as well as to ensure that he or she stays up to date on
changes since the last flight review or formal aviation training session. If the pilot
has completed the online flight review course in advance, you will want to review
the results and focus primarily on those questions the pilot answered incorrectly.
If the pilot has done nothing to prepare, the chart in Appendix 3 is one way to
guide your discussion. You might also organize the rules as they relate to the
pre-assigned cross-country flight plan that you will discuss. The important thing
is to put the rules and operating procedures into a context that is relevant and
meaningful to the pilot, as opposed to the sequential approach that encourages
rote memorization rather than higher levels of understanding.
XC Flight Plan Review: At the most basic level, you
are reviewing the pre-assigned flight plan for
accuracy and completeness (i.e., are the
calculations correct? Did the pilot show
understanding of the 14 CFR 91.103 requirement to
become familiar with “all” available information?)
You may want to use the Cross-Country Checklist in
Appendix 4 as a guide for checking the
completeness of the pre-assigned plan.
If the pilot used automated tools to develop the flight plan, here are some
questions and issues that you should teach him or her to ask about the
computer-generated package:
• How do I know that the computer-generated information is correct? (Not all
online flight planning and flight information tools are the same. Some provide
real-time updates; others may be as dangerous as an out-of-date chart.)
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• Does the computer-generated information pass the “common sense” test?
(Garbage-in, garbage-out is a fundamental principle in any kind of
automation. If a pilot headed for Augusta, Georgia (KAGS) mistakenly asks
for KAUG, the resulting flight plan will go to Augusta, Maine instead.)
• Does this plan include all the information I am required to consider? (Some
planning tools compute only course and distance, without regard to wind,
terrain, performance, and other factors in a safety-focused flight plan).
• Does this plan keep me out of trouble? (What if the computer-proposed
course takes you through high terrain in high density altitude conditions?)
• What will I do if I cannot complete the flight according to this plan? (Weather
can always interfere, but pilots should also understand that flight planning
software does not always generate ATC-preferred routes for IFR flying.)
Each of these questions is directed to a critical point that you should emphasize:
automated flight planning tools can be enormously helpful, but the pilot must
always review the information with a critical eye, frequently supplement the
computer’s plan with additional information, and never simply assume that the
computer-generated package “must be” okay because the machine is smarter.
Asking these kinds of questions is key to critical thinking, which is in turn the
secret to good aeronautical decision-making (ADM) and risk management.
There are many models for ADM, including charts that provide quantitative
assessment and generate a numerical “score” that pilots can use in evaluating
the level of risk. Although these tools can be useful, you may want to present the
“3-P” method developed by the FAA Aviation Safety Program. This model
encourages the pilot to Perceive hazards, Process risk level, and Perform risk
management by asking a series of questions about various aspects of the flight.
The handout in Appendix 5 explains this method in detail.
Since statistics show that weather is still the factor
most likely to result in accidents with fatalities, the
XC flight plan assignment also provides an
important opportunity to discuss weather and
weather decision-making. The GA Pilot’s Guide to
Preflight Weather Planning, Weather Self-
Briefings, and Weather Decision-Making, which uses the 3-P method as a
framework for weather decision-making, might be helpful in this discussion. If the
pilot flies VFR at night, be sure to talk about night flying considerations,
especially in overcast or “no moon” conditions.
GA Security: In the post-September 11 security environment, any security
incident involving general aviation pilots, aircraft, and airports can prompt calls
for new restrictions. As a flight instructor, you have a special responsibility to
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ensure that your clients know and follow basic security procedures. These
include not only respect for temporary flight restrictions (TFRs), but also for the
importance of securing your aircraft against unauthorized use. Pilots should
never leave the aircraft unlocked or, worse, unattended with the keys inside.
In addition, be sure that the pilot knows about the Airport Watch Program, which
was developed by the Transportation Security
Administration (TSA) and the Aircraft Owners
and Pilots Association (AOPA). Airport Watch
relies upon the nation’s pilots to observe and
report suspicious activity. The Airport Watch
Program is supported by a government-provided
toll free hotline (1-866-GA-SECURE) and system
for reporting and acting on information provided
by general aviation pilots. A checklist of what to
look for is in Appendix 6. For more information
on GA security, see TSA’s GA security website and AOPA’s online GA security
resources page.
For specific information on flying in security-restricted airspace, including the
Washington DC metropolitan area Air Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ), direct
pilots to the FAA’s new online ADIZ-TFR training course and to the Air Safety
Foundation’s online airspace training courses.
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Step 3: Flight Activities
To operate safely in the modern flight environment, the pilot needs solid skills in
three distinct, but interrelated, areas. These include:
• “Physical Airplane” Skills (i.e., basic
stick-and-rudder proficiency);
• “Mental Airplane” Skills (i.e.,
knowledge and proficiency in
aircraft systems);
• Aeronautical Decision-Making
(ADM) Skills (i.e., higher-order
thinking skills).
Many flight reviews consist almost exclusively of airwork followed by multiple
takeoffs and landings. These maneuvers can give you a very good snapshot of
the pilot’s “physical airplane” skills. They are also good for the pilot, who gets a
safe opportunity to practice proficiency maneuvers that he or she may not have
performed since the last flight review. Airwork alone, however, will tell you little
about the pilot’s “mental airplane” knowledge of avionics and other aircraft
systems, and even less about the pilot’s ability to make safe and appropriate
decisions in real-world flying (ADM). Therefore, you need to structure the
exercise to give you a clear picture of the pilot’s skills with respect to each area.
Having the pilot fly the cross-country trip you assigned and discussed in the
ground review is a good way to achieve this goal. One leg will involve flying from
departure to destination, during which you ensure that the pilot encounters
scenarios that let you evaluate the pilot’s systems knowledge (“mental airplane”)
and decision-making skills, including risk management. The other leg (which can
come first, depending on how you choose to organize the exercise) will focus
more on airwork, which allows you to evaluate “physical airplane” skills.
Be sure to include a diversion. Remember the computer-generated flight plan
discussed during the ground review portion? While you are en route to the
planned destination, give the pilot a scenario that requires an immediate
diversion (e.g., mechanical problem, unexpected weather). Ask the pilot to
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choose an alternate destination and, using all available and appropriate
resources (e.g, chart, basic rules of
thumb, “nearest” and “direct to” functions
on the GPS) to calculate the approximate
course, heading, distance, and time
needed to reach the new destination.
Proceed to that point and, if at all feasible,
do some of the “physical airplane” pattern
work at the unexpected alternate.
The diversion exercise has several benefits. First, it generates “teachable
moments,” which are defined as those times when the learner is most aware of
the need for certain information or skills, and therefore most receptive to learning
what you want to teach. Diverting to an airport surrounded by high terrain, for
example, provides a “teachable moment” on the importance of obstacle
awareness and terrain avoidance planning. Second, the diversion exercise
quickly and efficiently reveals the pilot’s level of skill in each of the three areas:
• “Physical Airplane” Skills: Does the pilot maintain control of the aircraft when
faced with a major distraction? For a satisfactory flight review, the pilot
should be able to perform all maneuvers in accordance with the Practical Test
Standards (PTS) for the pilot certificate that he or she holds.
• “Mental Airplane” Skills: Does the pilot demonstrate knowledge and
proficiency in using avionics, aircraft systems, and “bring-
your-own-panel” handheld devices? Since many GA pilots
use handheld GPS navigators, you will want to see
whether the pilot can safely and appropriately operate the
devices that will be used when you are not on board to
monitor and serve as the ultimate safety net. Appropriate
and proficient use of the autopilot is another “mental airplane” skill to evaluate
in this exercise.
• Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM) Skills: Give the pilot multiple
opportunities to make decisions. Asking questions about those decisions is
an excellent way to get the information you need to evaluate ADM skills,
including risk management. For example, ask the pilot to explain why the
alternate airport selected for the diversion exercise is a safe and appropriate
choice. What are the possible hazards, and what can the pilot do to mitigate
them? Be alert to the pilot’s information and automation management skills
as well. For example, does the pilot perform regular “common sense cross-
checks” of what the GPS and/or the autopilot are doing?
For more ideas on generating scenarios that teach risk management, see the
four pamphlets available online at www.faa.gov/library/manuals/pilot_risk/.
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Step 4: Post flight Debriefing
Most instructors have experienced the traditional
“sage on the stage” model of training, in which the
teacher does all the talking and hands out grades with
little or no student input. There is a place for this kind
of debriefing; however, a collaborative critique is one
of the most effective ways to determine that the pilot
has not only the physical and mental airplane skills,
but also the self-awareness and judgment needed for
sound aeronautical decision-making. Here is one way
to structure a collaborative post flight critique:
Replay: Rather than starting the post flight briefing with a laundry list of areas
for improvement, ask the pilot to verbally replay the flight for you. Listen for
areas where your perceptions are different, and explore why they don’t match.
This approach gives the pilot a chance to validate his or her own perceptions,
and it gives you critical insight into his or her judgment abilities.
Reconstruct: The reconstruct stage encourages the pilot to learn by identifying
the “would’a could’a should’a” elements of the flight – that is, the key things that
he or she would have, could have, or should have done differently.
Reflect: Insights come from investing perceptions and experiences with
meaning, which in turn requires reflection on these events. For example:
• What was the most important thing you learned today?
• What part of the session was easiest for you? What part was hardest?
• Did anything make you uncomfortable? If so, when did it occur?
• How would you assess your performance and your decisions?
• Did you perform in accordance with the Practical Test Standards?
Redirect: The final step is to help the pilot relate lessons learned in this flight to
other experiences, and consider how they might help in future flights. Questions:
• How does this experience relate to previous flights?
• What might you do to mitigate a similar risk in a future flight?
• Which aspects of this experience might apply to future flights, and how?
• What personal minimums should you establish, and what additional
proficiency flying and training might be useful?
I
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Step 5: “Aeronautical Health” Maintenance & Improvement
If the pilot did not perform well enough for you to endorse him or her for
satisfactory completion of the flight review, use the PTS as the objective standard
to discuss areas needing improvement, as well as areas where the pilot
performed well. Offer a practical course of action – ground training, flight
training, or both – to help him or her get back up to standards. If possible, offer
to schedule the next session before the pilot leaves the airport.
If the pilot’s performance on both ground and flight portions was satisfactory, you
can complete the flight review simply by endorsing the pilot’s logbook. However,
offer the pilot an opportunity to develop a personalized aeronautical health
maintenance and improvement plan. Such a plan should include consideration
of the following elements:
Personal Minimums Checklist: One of the most important concepts to convey in
the flight review is that safe pilots understand the difference between what is
“legal” in terms of the regulations, and what is “smart” in terms of pilot experience
and proficiency. For this reason, assistance in completing a Personal Minimums
Checklist tailored to the pilot’s individual circumstances is perhaps the single
most important “takeaway” item you can offer. Use the Personal Minimums
Development Worksheets in Appendix 7 to help your client work through some of
the questions that should be considered in establishing “hard” personal
minimums, as well as in preflight and in-flight decision-making.
Personal Proficiency Practice Plan: Flying just for fun is one of the most
wonderful benefits of being a pilot, but many pilots would appreciate your help in
developing a plan for maintaining and improving basic aeronautical skills. You
might use the suggested flight profile in Appendix 8 as a guide for developing a
regular practice plan.
Training Plan: Discuss and schedule any additional training the pilot may need
to achieve individual flying goals. For example, the pilot’s goal might be to
develop the competence and confidence needed to fly at night, or to lower
personal minimums in one or more areas. Another goal might be completion of
another phase in the FAA’s Pilot Proficiency (“Wings”) Program, or obtaining a
complex, high performance, or tailwheel endorsement. Use the form in Appendix
9 to document the pilot’s aeronautical goals and develop a specific training plan
to help him or her achieve them.
The flight review is vital link in the general aviation safety chain. As a person
authorized to conduct this review, you play a critical role in ensuring that it is a
meaningful and effective tool for maintaining and enhancing GA safety.
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Appendices
Appendix 1 CFI’s Flight Review Checklist
Appendix 2 Pilot’s Aeronautical History
Appendix 3 Regulatory Review Guide
Appendix 4 Pilot’s Cross-Country Checklist
Appendix 5 3-P Risk Management Process
Appendix 6 GA Security Checklist
Appendix 7 Personal Minimums Worksheet
PAVE Personal Minimums Development Guide
Appendix 8 Personal Proficiency Practice Plan
Appendix 9 Personal Training Plan
Appendix 10 Resources
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Appendix 1
CFI’s Flight Review Checklist
Step 1: Pre-Flight Review Actions
Scheduling
Pilot’s Aeronautical History
Part 91 Review Assignment
Cross-Country Flight Plan Assignment
Step 2: Ground Discussion
Regulatory Review
Cross-Country Flight Plan Review
Risk Management & Personal Minimums
Step 3: Conducting the Flight
Physical Airplane (basic skills)
Mental Airplane (systems knowledge)
Aeronautical Decision-Making
Step 4: Postflight Discussion
Replay, Reflect, Reconstruct, Redirect
Questions
Step 5: Aeronautical Health Maintenance & Improvement Plan
Personal Minimums Checklist
Personal Proficiency Practice Plan
Training Plan (if desired)
Resources List
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Appendix 2
Pilot’s Aeronautical History for Flight Review
Pilot’s Name:__________________________ CFI:_______________________
Address:_________________________________________________________
Phone(s):____________________________ e-mail:______________________
Type of Pilot Certificate(s):
Private______ Commercial_____ ATP_______ Flight Instructor_______
Rating(s):
Instrument_____ Multiengine _________
Experience (Pilot):
Total time_________ Last 6 months________ Avg hours/month_______
Time logged since last flight review__________ Since last IPC__________
Experience (Aircraft):
Aircraft type(s) you fly______________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Aircraft used most often_____________________________________________
For this aircraft:
Total time_________ Last 6 months________ Avg hours/month_______
Experience (Flight environment):
Since your last flight review, approximately how many hours have you logged in:
Day VFR___________ Day IFR__________ IMC_________________
Night VFR__________ Night IFR_________
Mountainous terrain____________ Overwater flying__________________
Airport with control tower________ Airport w/o control tower____________
Type of Flying (External factors):
What percentage of your flying is for:
Pleasure_________ Business______ Local_______ XC_______
Personal Skills Assessment:
What are your strengths as a pilot?____________________________________
What do you most want to practice/improve?_____________________________
What are your aviation goals?________________________________________
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Appendix 3
14
Regulatory Review Guide
Pilot
Experience:
Recent flight experience (61.57)
Responsibility:
Authority (91.3)
ATC Instructions(91.123)
Preflight action (91.103)
Safety belts (91.107)
Flight crew at station (91.105)
Cautions:
Careless or reckless operation (91.13)
Dropping objects (91.15)
Alcohol or drugs (91.17
Supplemental oxygen (91.211)
Fitness for flight (AIM Chapter 8, Section 1)
Aircraft
Airworthiness:
Basic (91.7)
Flight manual, markings, placards (91.9)
Certifications required (91.203)
Instrument & equipment requirements (91.205)
-ELT (91.207)
-Position lights (91.209)
-Transponder requirements (91.215)
-Inoperative instruments and equipment (91.213)
Maintenance:
Responsibility (91.403)
Maintenance required (91.405)
Maintenance records (91.417)
Operation after maintenance (91.407)
Inspections:
Annual, Airworthiness Directives, 100-Hour (91.409)
Altimeter & Pitot Static System (91.411)
VOR check (91.171)
Transponder (91.413)
ELT (91.207)
enVironment
Airports
Markings (AIM Chapter 2, Section 3)
Operations (AIM 4-3; 91.126, 91.125)
Traffic Patterns (91.126
Airspace
Altimeter Settings (91.121; AIM 7-2)
Minimum Safe Altitudes (91.119, 91.177)
Cruising Altitudes (91.159, 91.179; AIM 3-1-5)
Speed Limits (91.117)
Right of Way (91.113)
Formation (91.111)
Types of Airspace (AIM 3)
-Controlled Airspace (AIM 3-2; 91.135, 91.131, 91.130, 91.129)
-Class G Airspace (AIM 3-3)
-Special Use (AIM 3-4; 91.133, 91.137, 91.141. 91.143, 91.145)
Emergency Air Traffic Rules (91.139; AIM 5-6)
Air Traffic Control & Procedures
Services (4-1)
Radio Communications (4-2 & Pilot/Controller Glossary)
Clearances (4-4)
Procedures (AIM 5)
Weather
Meteorology (AIM 7-1)
Wake Turbulence (AIM 7-3)
External
pressues
Personal Minimums Checklist
Risk Management (3-P model)
PTS Special Emphasis Items
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Appendix 4
Pilot’s Cross-Country Checklist
PILOT
Review Personal Minimums Checklist
Recency (time/practice in last 30 days)
Currency (takeoffs & landings, IFR currency if applicable)
Terrain & airspace (familiarity?)
Health & well-being
AIRCRAFT
Overall mechanical condition
Avionics & systems
Performance calculations
Fuel requirements
Other equipment
ENVIRONMENT
Weather
Reports & forecasts
Departure
En route
Destination
Severe weather forecasts?
Weather stability?
Alternate required?
Night
Flashlights available
Terrain avoidance plan
Airspace
TFRs or other restrictions
COM/NAV equipment requirements
Cruising altitude(s)
Terrain
VFR & IFR charts with MSA / MEA altitudes
AOPA/ASF Terrain Avoidance Planning
Airports
COM/NAV requirements & frequencies
Runway lengths
Services available
EXTERNAL PRESSURES
Family expectations?
Passenger needs / expectations?
Weather worries?
Prepared for diversion (money, accommodations)?
Time pressures (e.g., “must be at work” issues)?
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Appendix 5
3-P Risk Management Process
Good aeronautical decision-making includes risk management, a process that
systematically identifies hazards, assesses the degree of risk, and determines
the best course of action. There are many models for risk management,
including charts that generate a numerical “score.” Although these tools can be
useful, numbers-based tools suggest a level of precision that may be misleading.
An alternative method is the Perceive – Process – Perform risk management and
aeronautical decision-making model developed by the FAA Aviation Safety
Program. There are three basic steps in this model:
PERCEIVE hazards
PROCESS to evaluate level of risk
PERFORM risk management
PERCEIVE: The goal is to identify hazards, which are events, objects, or
circumstances that could contribute to an undesired event. You need to consider
hazards associated with:
Pilot
Aircraft
enVironment
External Pressures.
PROCESS: Ask questions to determine what can hurt you. In short, why do you
have to CARE about these hazards?
What are the Consequences?
What are the Alternatives available to me?
What is the Reality of the situation facing me?
What kind of External pressures may affect my thinking?
PERFORM: Change the situation in your favor. Your objective is to make sure
the hazard does not hurt ME or my loved ones, so work to either
Mitigate the risk involved, or
Eliminate the risk involved.
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Appendix 6
General Aviation Security
The Transportation Security Administration (TSA) has partnered with the Aircraft
Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA) to develop a nationwide Airport Watch
Program that uses the more than 650,000 pilots as eyes and ears for observing
and reporting suspicious activity. This partnership helps general aviation keep
our airports secure without needless and expensive security requirements. AOPA
Airport Watch is supported by a centralized government provided toll free hotline
(1-866-GA-SECURE) and system for reporting and acting on information
provided by general aviation pilots. The Airport Watch Program includes warning
signs for airports, informational literature, and training videotape to educate pilots
and airport employees as to how security of their airports and aircraft can be
enhanced.
Here's what to look for:
• Pilots who appear under the control of someone else.
• Anyone trying to access an aircraft through force — without keys, using a
crowbar or screwdriver.
• Anyone who seems unfamiliar with aviation procedures trying to check out
an airplane.
• Anyone who misuses aviation lingo — or seems too eager to use all the
lingo
• People or groups who seem determined to keep to themselves.
• Any members of your airport neighborhood who work to avoid contact with
you or other airport tenants.
• Anyone who appears to be just loitering, with no specific reason for being
there.
• Any out-of-the-ordinary videotaping of aircraft or hangars.
• Aircraft with unusual or obviously unauthorized modifications.
• Dangerous cargo or loads — explosives, chemicals, openly displayed
weapons — being loaded into an airplane.
• Anything that strikes you as wrong — listen to your gut instinct, and then
follow through.
• Pay special attention to height, weight, and the individual's clothing or
other identifiable traits.
Use common sense. Not all these items indicate terrorist activity.
When in doubt, check it out!
Check with airport staff or call the National Response Center
1-866-GA-SECURE!
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Appendix 7
Developing Personal Weather Minimums
Note: This worksheet was adapted from the Personal and Weather Risk Assessment Guide (October 2003).
www.faa.gov/education_research/training/fits/guidance/media/Pers%20Wx%20Risk%20Assessment%20Guide-V1.0.pdf.
Certification, Training, and Experience Summary
Certificate level (e.g., private, commercial, ATP)
Ratings (e.g., instrument, multiengine)
Certification
Endorsements (e.g., complex, high performance, high altitude)
Flight review (e.g., certificate, rating, Wings Program)
Instrument Proficiency Check
Time since checkout in airplane 1
Time since checkout in airplane 2
Time since checkout in airplane 3
Training
Variation in equipment used (e.g., GPS navigators)
Total flying time
Years flying
Hours in previous 12 months
Hours in this airplane (or identical model) in last 12 months
Landings in last 12 months
Night hours in last 12 months
Night landings in last 12 months
Hours flown in high density altitude in last 12 months
Hours flown in mountainous terrain in last 12 months
Crosswind landings in last 12 months
IFR hours in last 12 months
IMC hours (actual conditions) in last 12 months
Experience
Approaches (actual or simulated) in last 12 months
Note: Use this part of the worksheet to review your recency and currency before a specific flight.
Suggested Personal Minimums
Weather Condition
VFR Pilot
(100-200 hours)
IFR Pilot
(300-500 hours)
My Personal Minimums
Ceiling & Visibility
Ceiling – DAY VFR 3,000 feet 2,000 feet
Ceiling – NIGHT VFR 5,000 feet 3,000 feet
Ceiling – IFR APPROACH n/a Minimums + 500
Visibility – DAY VFR 5 miles 3 miles
Visibility – NIGHT VFR 7 miles 5 miles
Visibility – IFR APPROACH n/a Minimums + ½ mile
Turbulence (Wind)
Surface Wind Speed 15 knots 15 knots
Surface Wind Gusts 5 knots 5 knots
Crosswind Component 7 knots 7 knots
Mountain Flying Consult instructor or mentor
Overwater Flying Consult instructor or mentor
Icing Conditions n/a
Consult instructor or
mentor
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Appendix 7
PAVE Personal Minimums Development Guide (PILOT Factors)
Pilot’s Name:__________________________ CFI:_______________________ Date:___________________________
Example below assumes total time is < 500 hours*; adjust as appropriate for additional experience
Go Risk Mitigation Strategy No-Go
>6 TO & LDG
X
3-6 TO & LDG
X
Recency
(last 90 days)
0-3 TO & LDG
Work with a CFI (especially if total time < 100 hours).
>9
X
5-8
X
Time in
Type
(make & model
in last 90 days)
0-4
Work with a CFI (especially if total time < 100 hours).
> 3
X
< 3
Plan practice session in VMC before flying in IMC.
IFR App
(in last 90 days,
if filing IFR)
0
Work with CFI before filing IFR or flying in IMC.
> 3
X
< 3
Plan practice session in VMC before flying in IMC.
IFR Time
(in last 90 days,
actual or sim)
0
Work with CFI before filing IFR or flying in IMC.
*AOPA Air Safety Foundation’s Nall Report shows that 32% of all GA accidents and 26% of fatal GA accidents involve pilots with total time under 500 hours.
Physical Condition
Go Risk Mitigation Strategy No-Go
>6 hours
X
5-6 hours
Fly earlier in the day; avoid night flying.
Sleep
(last 24 hours)
< 5 hours
X
3 meals
X
Food &
Water
Missed meals?
Take time for meal (or light snack / water) before flight; otherwise – NO-GO.
0
X
Alcohol
(last 8 hours)
Any amount
X
0
X
Prescription?
Confirm that prescription meds are acceptable to FAA.
Drugs/Meds
Other?
Do not fly if under the influence of any drug.
X
Stress
Any?
Stress from family, work, or other areas can be a dangerous distraction.
X
Illness
Any?
Do not fly if you are sick – even common colds can be distracting.
X
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Appendix 7
PAVE Personal Minimums Development Guide (AIRCRAFT Factors)
Pilot’s Name:__________________________ CFI:_______________________ Date:___________________________
Performance
Go Risk Mitigation Strategy No-Go
> 1.5 hours
X
1 hour
X
Fuel
Reserves
(day VFR)
< 1 hour
X
> 2 hours
X
1.5 – 2 hours
Stay within easy range of airport with fuel available at night.
Fuel
Reserves
(night VFR)
< 1.5 hours
X
> 2 hour
X
Fuel
Reserves
(day or night
IFR)
< 2 hours
X
3-6
X
Hours
(TO & LDGs in
type in last 90
days)
< 3
Work with a CFI (especially if total time < 100 hours).
> MGTOW
X
Weight
< MGTOW
X
If final calculation is close to MGTOW, use precise weights to ensure accuracy.
In CG range
X
CG
Out of CG
Do not operate outside of CG range – redistribute load or do not go!
X
0-2000
X
2000-5000
Carefully calculate performance numbers: TO & LDG, Climb, Cruise.
Density
Altitude
> 5000
Carefully calculate performance; if unaccustomed to high DA ops, do not go!
X
> 1000+
X
500-1000+
Carefully calculate performance with special attention to chart notes.
TO & LDG
Margins
(relative to POH
numbers)
< 500+
X
Avionics
Comm/Nav
Proficient in operation of all systems?
Charts
Lack of current & appropriate charts is a no-go item!
Clothing
Suitable for preflight and enroute conditions.
Equipment
Survival gear
Must have if flying over water, snow, mountains, etc.
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Appendix 7
PAVE Personal Minimums Development Guide (ENVIRONMENT Factors)
Pilot’s Name:__________________________ CFI:_______________________ Date:___________________________
Airport Conditions (departure & destination)
Go Risk Mitigation Strategy No-Go
< 5
X
5 - 10
Are you current and proficient in crosswind landings?
X-Wind
(assumes max
demonstrated
XW of 15 knots)
> 10
Work with CFI .
> 1000+
X
500-1000+
Carefully calculate performance with special attention to chart notes.
Runway
Length
(relative to POH
numbers)
< 500+
X
Weather Conditions (reports & forecasts)
Go Risk Mitigation Strategy No-Go
< 1 hour old
X
Be especially cautious if there are changes (e.g., SPECI reports).
1-3 hours old
Get updated weather before departing.
Reports
(METARS etc)
> 3 hours old
Do not operate on basis of reports more than 3 hours old.
X
< 2 hours old
X
2-4 hours old
Be suspicious – especially if TAFs have been amended.
Forecasts
(TAFs etc)
4-6 hours old
TAFs are produced for 00Z, 06Z, 12Z, and 18Z. Don’t use a “stale” forecast!
X
Icing
Any
Unless you are qualified and your aircraft is certified for flight into known icing,
do not attempt to operate light aircraft in forecast icing conditions.
X
T-Storms
Any
Unless you are qualified and your aircraft has thunderstorm avoidance
equipment (radar, stormscope, datalink), do not enter clouds when
thunderstorms are forecast. If VFR, do not operate unless you can maintain at
least 20 nm away from cumulonimbus.
X
Weather Conditions (ceiling & visibility for day VFR)
Go Risk Mitigation Strategy No-Go
> 3000
X
1000-3000
Ensure that you are current, proficient, and familiar with surrounding terrain.
Ceiling
< 1000
Not legal for VFR.
X
> 5
X
5
Ensure that you are current, proficient, and familiar with surrounding terrain.
Visibility
< 5
Although legal for VFR, visibility lower than 5 miles creates a higher risk.
X
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Appendix 7
Weather Conditions (ceiling & visibility for night VFR)
Go Risk Mitigation Strategy No-Go
> 3000
X
1000-3000
Terrain considerations are a major factor in the go/no-go decision.
Ceiling
< 1000
Not legal for VFR.
> 5
X
5
X
Visibility
< 5
Visibility below 5 miles creates a higher risk, especially at night.
X
Full moon
X
> ¼ moon
X
Light
No moon or
overcast
Fly IFR or do not go – a large majority of fatal night accidents occur when there
is an overcast or no moon.
X
Weather Conditions (ceiling & visibility for IFR)
Go Risk Mitigation Strategy No-Go
> 1000
X
500-1000
X
Consider not attempting in single pilot IMC operations.
Ceiling
(relative to IAP
minimums)
minimums
Unless you are current and proficient in IFR procedures and IMC conditions,
do not attempt an instrument departure or approach to minimums.
X
> 2 miles
X
1-2 miles+
X
Visibility
(relative to IAP
minimums)
< 1 mile
Unless you are current and proficient in IFR procedures and IMC conditions,
do not attempt an instrument departure or approach with less than 1 mile
visibility.
Factors to Consider in Number of Instrument Approach Attempts
Go Risk Mitigation Strategy No-Go
Total IFR time
Regardless of total time, do not attempt more than 2 approaches.
Approach
Attempts
(at same airport)
IFR
experience in
last 90 days
Regardless of recent experience, do not attempt more than 2 approaches.
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Appendix 7
PAVE Personal Minimums Development Guide (EXTERNAL PRESSURES)
Pilot’s Name:__________________________ CFI:_______________________ Date:___________________________
Trip Planning Considerations
Go Risk Mitigation Strategy No-Go
> 2 day
X
1-2 days
X
Be ready for changes in weather that might require a change in your plans
Tolerance
for Delay
0
X
Passengers
Waiting family
Accommodations
Available
Alternatives
for
Alternative
transport
Do not fly if you are under pressure to meet someone else’s schedule, unless
you have alternative arrangements in place to mitigate the risk.
Credit cards
Money
Prescription
meds
Equipment
Clothing
Personal Trip Planning Matrix
Self Passenger(s)
Family/Friends/Colleagues
at Destination
Risk Mitigation Strategies
PURPOSE of TRIP
> 2 day
1-2 days
Tolerance
for Delay
0
Accommodations
Transport
Meals
Available
Alternatives
Other?
Money
Credit cards
Prescription
meds
Equipment
Appropriate
clothing
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Appendix 8
Personal Proficiency Practice Plan
Pilot’s Name:__________________________ CFI:_______________________
Date:___________________________ Review Date:________________
VFR Flight Profile – Every 4-6 Weeks:
Preflight (include 3-P Risk Management Process)
Normal taxi, takeoff, departure to practice area.
CHAPS (before each maneuver):
Clear the area
Heading established & noted
Altitude established (at least 3,000 AGL)
Position near a suitable emergency landing area
Set power and aircraft configuration
Steep turns (both directions), maintaining altitude within 100’ and
airspeed within 10 knots.
Power-off stalls (approach to landing) & recovery.
Power-on stalls (takeoff/departure) & recovery.
Ground reference maneuvers.
Pattern practice:
Normal landing (full flaps)
Short-field takeoff and landing over a 50’ obstacle
Soft-field takeoff and landing
Secure the aircraft.
Review your performance.
Schedule next proficiency flight.
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Appendix 9
Personal Aeronautical Goals
Pilot’s Name:__________________________ CFI:_______________________
Date:___________________________ Review Date:________________
Training Goals
_______ Certificate Level (Private, Commercial, ATP)
_______ Ratings (Instrument, AMEL, ASES, AMES, etc)
_______ Endorsements (high performance, complex, tailwheel, high altitude)
_______ Phase in Pilot Proficiency (Wings) Program
_______ Instructor Qualifications (CFI, CFI-I, MEI, AGI, IGI)
Other: _____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Proficiency Goals
_______ Lower personal minimums to:
__________ Ceiling
__________ Visibility
__________ Winds
__________ Precision Approach Minimums
__________ Non-Precision Approach Minimums
_______ Fly at least:
__________ Times per month
__________ Hours per month
__________ Hours per year
__________ XC flights per year
__________ Night hours per month
_______ Make a XC trip to:
_____________________________
Other: _____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Aeronautical Training Plan
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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Appendix 10
Resources
Endorsements and Flight Review (AC)
www.airweb.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/
GA Pilot’s Guide to Preflight Weather Planning, Weather Self-Briefings, and
Weather Decision-Making
www.faa.gov/pilots/safety/media/ga_weather_decision_making.pdf
Night Flying
www.aopa.org/asf/safety_topics.html#night
Online Resources for CFIs
www.faasafety.gov
Personal Minimums Checklist
www.faa.gov/education_research/training/fits/guidance/media
Risk Management and System Safety Modules
www.faa.gov/education_research/training/fits/training/flight_instructor/
Risk Management Teaching Tips
www.faa.gov/library/manuals/pilot_risk
Security for GA
www.tsa.gov/public/display?theme=180
Teaching Practical Risk Management
www.faa.gov/library/aviation_news/2005/media/MayJune2005Issue.pdf
Tools for CFIs (AOPA)
http://flighttraining.aopa.org/cfi_tools/
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