)&"#/%)&"#/%
/,4-&
224&
",,
13*$,&
$3/#&1
/5&.".3*.(2)*01"$&"$1*:$&".%1/0)&3*2-*.3)&,%/5&.".3*.(2)*01"$&"$1*:$&".%1/0)&3*2-*.3)&,%
&23"-&.3&23"-&.3
*$+*&$/33
*#&138.*5&12*38
122$/33,*#&138&%4
/,,/63)*2".%"%%*3*/.",6/1+2"3)3302%*(*3",$/--/.2,*#&138&%4+"#/%
"13/'3)&*#,*$",34%*&2/--/.2".%3)&&,*(*/42)/4()3)&/,/(8".%)*,/2/0)8/'&,*(*/.
/--/.2
&$/--&.%&%*3"3*/.2&$/--&.%&%*3"3*/.2
$/33*$+*&/5&.".3*.(2)*01"$&"$1*:$&".%1/0)&3*2-*.3)&,%&23"-&.3
)&"#/%
13*$,&
*#&138.*5&12*38*(*3",/--/.2
&# 77/.3)7777!
$/33*$+*&/5&.".3*.(2)*01"$&"$1*:$&".%1/0)&3*2-*.3)&,%&23"-&.3
)&
"#/%
13*$,&&31*&5&%'1/-)3302%*(*3",$/--/.2,*#&138&%4+"#/%5/,*22
41"#*".
$/33*$+*&/5&.".3*.(2)*01"$&"$1*:$&".%1/0)&3*2-*.3)&,%&23"-&.3
)&"#/%
./$$&22&% /.3)77777!*#&138.*5&12*38*(*3",/--/.2
)*2.%*5*%4",13*$,&*2#1/4()33/8/4'/1'1&&".%/0&."$$&22#8$)/,"121/22*.(3)"2#&&."$$&03&%'/1
*.$,42*/.*.)&"#/%#8"."43)/1*9&%&%*3/1/'$)/,"121/22*.(/1-/1&*.'/1-"3*/.0,&"2&$/.3"$3
2$)/,"1,8$/--4.*$"3*/.2,*#&138&%4
Scott 1
COVENANT, KINGSHIP, GRACE, SACRIFICE, AND PROPHETISM
IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
The Old Testament conveys the expansive and intricate theological history of God’s plan
for his chosen people prior to the second coming of Jesus Christ. Although the Old Testament
presents a vast array of fundamental information and ideas, many people misunderstand or
simply gloss over the major themes detailed throughout the text. In order to better comprehend
the literature of the Old Testament, one must grasp the themes of covenant, kingship, grace,
sacrifice, and prophetism, which embody much of the biblical text. Understand
Covenant
The concept of covenant is one of the most important themes of the Old Testament. The
term means “a formal agreement or treaty between two parties in which each assumes some
obligation” (Unterman 2011, 158). Common forms of covenant in the Old Testament are a pact
of mutuality between two individuals, such as David and Jonathan; a covenant between a
husband and wife, or more commonly between political entities, such as Abraham and the
Amorites. However, the term “covenant” was also used to describe agreements between God and
his people, the most referenced being the covenant between God and Israel at Sinai (159).
Whether the covenant is divine or human, a covenant relationship is not merely a mutual
acquaintance, but “a commitment to ‘faithfulness,’ acted out in a context of abiding friendship”
(Craigie 1988, 531). Through divine-human covenants, “God has conveyed to humanity the
meaning of human life and salvation” (531). Although in the Old Testament the purpose of the
covenant was to convey divine meaning to the Israelites, it also applies to the modern church
through the stipulations of the New Covenant.
1
Scott: Old Testament Themes
Published by Scholars Crossing, 2015
Scott 2
While humans could not initiate the divine-human covenants with God, they could create
covenants among each other. Although covenant is most closely associated with God’s promises
to his people, there are many examples of covenants found interpersonally in the Old Testament.
In fact, “the same basic characteristics of a strictly human covenant are present in a divine
covenant” (531). These characteristics include a relationship between two parties and mutual
obligations between the covenant partners. To the Old Testament believer, religion meant
covenant; they associated the word with religious responsibilities to God and to others (531).
Therefore, covenant relationships between humans contained essential similarities with the
divine-human covenants. The religion in the Old Testament is centered on faithfulness to God
and adherence to His covenant responsibilities. In turn, God uses his covenants with mankind as
an instrument to cause self-revelation. He not only reveals what He is like through the covenants,
but also binds Himself to a particular course of action. The Israelites are required to respond with
obedience, and while God’s covenants are acts of mercy, they are also just, which ensures a
certain amount of accountability to the Hebrew people.
The fundamental character of covenants remains the same throughout the Old Testament,
but the specific form and nature of the covenants change throughout Israel’s history. The Hebrew
text of the Old Testament focuses on the initial covenant with Adam, the Noachian Covenant, the
Abrahamic Covenant, the Mosaic or Sinaitic Covenant, the Davidic Covenant, and the New
Covenant. Most scholars agree that the first covenant begins with Adam, yet in his case “the
technical meaning of an agreement with signs and pledges is more conspicuous” (Moss 1989,
162). Although the creation account in Genesis does not specifically state that God made a
covenant with Adam, it is clear that the essence of covenant is present in the Genesis account.
The description of the fall of mankind in Genesis 3 details the separation of man from God, or
2
The Kabod, Vol. 2, Iss. 1 [2015], Art. 5
https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/kabod/vol2/iss1/5
Scott 3
the human predicament. Due to the nature of sin, which entered the world when Adam and Eve
sinned against God by eating the forbidden fruit, humankind could no longer intimately relate to
its Creator. From that circumstance “emerges a distinctive feature of divine-human covenants;
namely, that God alone can initiate the relationship of covenant” (Craigie 1988, 532). The
biblical truth of God as initiator of covenants establishes a precedent for all the following
covenants.
The next covenant is the Noachian covenant. In fact, the first explicit mention of the term
“covenant” is in the flood account, and “refers to the initiative taken by God to bind himself
again to human beings” (532). The sinfulness of humankind continues through the time of the
flood, whereby God decides to punish the earth and renew His covenant with the sign of a
rainbow. It follows that the “climax of the flood narrative is best understood in terms of a re-
creation – a restoration of the divine order that had been established at creation” (Williamson
2003, 139). The Noachian Covenant was preceded by bloody sacrifice, which was a
foreshadowing of Christ’s coming. In addition, there is a focus on preserving seed (Genesis 9:9),
which conveys its redemptive significance in that woman will deliver and repopulate mankind
through childbirth. The testament, moreover, “demonstrates more clearly than any other OT
revelation the essential priority of the objective features of the covenant over the subjective”
(Payne 2009, 1068). God clearly reveals Himself as a God who judges but also keeps his
promises and commitment to his plan.
In the Abrahamic Covenant, God promises Abraham land, progeny, kingship, and
blessing. The Lord blesses Abraham and Sarah with a miraculous child, even though Sarah was
too old to conceive. The theme of the “seed” therefore continues throughout Genesis; “his use of
key words such as ‘seed’ (i.e., ‘offspring,’ ‘descendants’) and ‘blessing’ (‘making fertile and
3
Scott: Old Testament Themes
Published by Scholars Crossing, 2015
Scott 4
victorious’) reinforces the book’s theme that God elected the seed of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob”
to bless the earth (Waltke 2007, 306). They act as heirs of the Abrahamic Covenant, which
serves as a calling on a nation to form a new nation that carries out God’s commands and
sovereign plan. The covenant with Abraham “ensured a blessing through their seed to all nations,
circumcision being adopted as the token” (Moss 1989, 162). In addition to promising seed, “the
Abrahamic Covenant promises that God will…give his seed the land the Canaanites defiled”
(Waltke 2007, 306). Although the Israelites had many struggles entering and keeping the
Promised Land, God never broke his covenant; God always rescues his plan and keeps his
promise.
The ancestral covenants previously mentioned act as “the theological backbone
supporting the national covenants and against which they must be understood” (Williamson
2003, 149). The Mosaic Covenant at Sinai in Egypt is a national covenant that is frequently
referred to in the Old Testament. Many scholars believe that “the covenant established between
God and Israel at Mount Sinai is the focal point of the covenant tradition” (Craigie 1988, 533).
After the miraculous exodus from Egypt, God gave Moses and the Hebrew people a covenant
while they were at Mount Sinai. Interestingly, the framework of the Mosaic Covenant shares
many similarities with suzerain-vassal treaties from the ancient Near East, specifically Hittite
and Assyrian treaties (Unterman 2011, 158). The covenant was also a constitution, but given to
Israel “by God, with appointed promise and penalty, duly inscribed on the tables of the covenant,
which were deposited in the ark” (Moss 1989, 162). Rather than focusing on a family, the
Mosaic Covenant addressed the whole nation with a set of governing rules. The resulting Ten
Commandments, as well as other Mosaic legislation, follow the revelation of the covenant and
produce new laws that detail how the Hebrews should live and honor God. The legislation
4
The Kabod, Vol. 2, Iss. 1 [2015], Art. 5
https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/kabod/vol2/iss1/5
Scott 5
contained “both the moral requirements of the testament and the forms of ceremonial obedience
that make up the ritual of the tabernacle, which became the testamental sanctuary” (Payne 2009,
1060). Due to the sin nature of humankind, the Israelites had trouble keeping the stipulations of
the covenant. Although Retribution Theology, which states that there were consequences for
disobedience of equal gravity to the sin committed, is present in the Mosaic covenant, that “does
not mean that it is a ‘conditional covenant’; in fact, “the punishment that disobedience brings
presumes that the relationship between the parties is still intact” (Unterman 2011, 159).
The next major covenant is the Davidic Covenant. The Mosaic Covenant was still active,
but the covenant tradition underwent modification during the time of David because an
additional element was added: “God entered a covenant with David as king…that was to be an
everlasting covenant with David’s royal lineage” (Craigie 1988, 535). Many scholars argue that
the Davidic Covenant is more unilateral than the Mosaic Covenant because it “speak[s] of what
God offers, but not of what God requires in return” (Unterman 2011, 159). Unterman writes
about the similarities of the Davidic Covenant with the promissory royal grants, which were
common throughout the ancient Near East. According to the grants, “land was given to loyal
servants by the king, and the grant required no further action on behalf of the grantee” (159).
Likewise, the Davidic Covenant assures David of a permanent dynasty in which “the Davidic
king is depicted metaphorically as the Son of God” (159). The Davidic Covenant is generally
known as a Messianic covenant. For several centuries, David’s dynasty ruled a united Israel, but
after the Babylonians conquered Judah in 586 BC, a descendant of David was no longer ruling;
however, “the everlasting nature of the covenant with David was brought out…not in the pages
of ancient history but in the expectation of a Messiah who would be born of David’s
5
Scott: Old Testament Themes
Published by Scholars Crossing, 2015
Scott 6
descendants” (Craigie 1988, 535). The New Testament, therefore, extends the Davidic Covenant
into the new era and person of Jesus, which leads directly into the New Covenant.
The final major covenant is the New Covenant. The Davidic Covenant was eternal, and
the Mosaic Covenant was, in essence, temporal, including conditional clauses “stated in the
blessings and curses of Deuteronomy” (Craigie 1988, 535). Due to Israel’s continual
disobedience of the law, Hebrew prophets often foresaw a dangerous end to the covenant
relationship; however, some prophets, such as Hosea and Jeremiah, also saw that the covenant
“was rooted in divine love and that therefore even the curse of God could not be final” (535).
The concept of the New Covenant is conveyed through the parable of Hosea and his wife. The
prophet Hosea divorces his wife, Gomer, who is unfaithful to him, and God later commands him
to remarry Gomer and reconcile. Hosea’s marriage story is a parable that reflects Israel’s
relationship with God: “Israel’s sin would inevitably culminate in a divorce from God,” (535)
but God accepts Israel back into the relationship through the New Covenant. Craigie purports
that after the exile from the Promised Land into Babylon, Jeremiah understood that there was a
truth beyond his contemporary realities at work (535). In Jeremiah 31:31, he writes of a new
covenant that God would bring into effect: “The days are coming, says the Lord, when I will
make a new covenant with the house of Israel and the house of Judah,” which according to
Jeremiah 31:33, would be marked by a fundamental act of God within human hearts. In Luke
22:20, during the last supper, Jesus refers to his blood as “the new covenant.” The New
Covenant is essential to an understanding of the Old and New Testaments. Through the initial,
Noachian, Abrahamic, Mosaic, Davidic, and New Covenants, God reveals himself and his plan
for his people in the Old Testament.
Kingship
6
The Kabod, Vol. 2, Iss. 1 [2015], Art. 5
https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/kabod/vol2/iss1/5
Scott 7
The theme of kingship is very important in the Old Testament. The Hebrew name for
“king,” melek, is “connected with an Assyrian root meaning ‘advise,’ ‘counsel,’ ‘rule,’ and it
seems to have first signified ‘the wise man,’ the ‘counselor,’ and then ‘the ruler’” (Boyd 1989,
515). In the Old Testament, as the etymology of the name suggests, the Hebrew people knew that
God valued counsel and wisdom for his officials. The title ‘King’ is first attributed to rulers of
the ancient city-states during the time of Abraham (515). The concept of kingship was
popularized in the Abrahamic Covenant, and later defined as an office in 1 Samuel. In the Old
Testament, kingship could either be “God’s gift to Israel and/or a concession to their unbelief”
(Waltke 2007, 680). While kings can be a form of “divine election,” they can also be extremely
displeasing to God (680). For example, Israel’s elders tell Samuel, “Appoint a king to lead us,
such as all the other nations have” (1 Samuel 8:5). Their request for a king is not necessarily
wrong, but “their sin lay in wanting a king like all the nations” (690). Not only does God
disapprove of Israel’s kings being like the others, He also gives specific instructions for kings in
Deuteronomy 17. Deuteronomy 17:15 indicates that the Israelites are to appoint a king that God
chooses. Furthermore, Deuteronomy 17:15-18 clearly states:
He must be from among your fellow Israelites. Do not place a foreigner over you…The
king, moreover, must not acquire great numbers of horses for himself or make the people
return to Egypt…He must not take many wives…He must not accumulate large amounts
of silver and gold. When he takes the throne of his kingdom, he is to write for himself on
a scroll a copy of this law, taken from that of the Levitical priests.
Through Deuteronomy 17, God reveals that Israel’s king must not be a foreigner, a
militarist, a materialist, or an internationalist. He recognizes that these qualities lead to
destruction, and therefore provides very specific guidelines. The king is instructed to read the
law so that “he may learn to revere the Lord his God” (19) and keep the covenant commands.
Additionally, the Lord promises that the king and his descendants will reign a long time over the
7
Scott: Old Testament Themes
Published by Scholars Crossing, 2015
Scott 8
kingdom in Israel, if the king observes the law and does not consider himself better than his
fellow Israelites. The office of kingship was divinely appointed, and God valued humility within
that role. Interestingly, the term “shepherd” was often used as a royal term to describe kingship
in the Old Testament. One of Pharaoh’s common titles was “Good Shepherd,” and Moses was
also referred to as a shepherd. In fact, “the Lord is my Shepherd,” actually means, “Yahweh is
my King” (Fowler 2014). While many attribute the term “shepherd” to humility, it is also a
symbol of power.
The history of kingship within Israel is complex. Old Testament patriarchs such as
Abraham, Joseph, and Moses were divinely appointed leaders; however, the actual office of
kingship did not take hold until after the period of the judges. Kingship was promised to
Abraham in his covenant, reiterated to Jacob, predicted for the tribe of Judah, personified in
Moses, incorporated into Mosaic law in Deuteronomy, passed onto Joshua, nonexistent during
Judges, and established in Samuel. God chooses to use kingship as a means to continue his
divine plan for humankind. During the time of the Judges, and Israel’s occupation of the
Promised Land, the Israelites were assembled in tribes and vulnerable to foreign invasion; “in
order to preserve the nation from extermination, it became necessary that a closer connection and
a more intimate bond of union should exist,” calling for the office of a king (Boyd 1989, 515).
Many of Israel’s ‘kings’ as a young nation were “little more than local or tribal heroes, carrying
on guerilla warfare against their neighbors” (515). Traditionally, kings in the Old Testament
were leaders in war and supreme judges (515). Succession was also an important historical
factor. For example, the succession in Judah remained into the house of David, and the father
always succeeded the son in the kingdom of the Ten Tribes, “unless violence and revolution
destroyed the royal house and brought a new adventurer to the throne” (516). The Israelites did
8
The Kabod, Vol. 2, Iss. 1 [2015], Art. 5
https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/kabod/vol2/iss1/5
Scott 9
mostly observe the office of kingship as a positive position for the nation’s good, and “law and
ancient custom were, in the people’s minds, placed before the kingly authority” (516).
The main Hebrew kings were Saul, David, and Solomon. During the reign of David and
Solomon, the Israelite kingdom reached its Zenith; however, after the death of Solomon, “the
northern ten tribes broke away, refusing to give allegiance to the dynasty of David, and thereafter
had their own kings” (Payne 1986, 21). Saul, David, and Solomon were all flawed kings. Saul,
though he started out as clearly the divinely appointed king, was shown to be rather superficial,
and “when Saul and his sons fell on Mt. Gilboa, it was not long till David the outlaw chief of
Judah was invited to fill his place” (Boyd 1989, 516). Saul committed a serious disobedience to
the law by using divination to gain information prior to battle in 1 Samuel 28. Although this does
not seem like a lofty crime, “Saul neither had nor acquired the theological sophistication to see
and perform his role in proper perspective or to function in it successfully” (Hill and Walton
1991, 273). After his initial mistakes, the text says that Yahweh’s Spirit was then replaced by an
evil spirit (1 Samuel 16:14). Christians often shed a poor light on Saul, and then contrast his
failures with the appearance of King David, the seemingly perfect leader. Although David was a
powerful, smart, and spiritual king, he was also flawed. His fibs cost people their lives (1 Samuel
21); his anger caused him to execute civilians (1 Samuel 27); his lust led him to murder and
commit adultery (2 Samuel 11); his pride led to a devastating pestilence upon the land (2 Samuel
24); and yet, “David was loyal to the Lord and recognized when he had committed sin” (Hill and
Walton 1991, 274). When David passed the kingship to his son Solomon, “the transition from the
system of judges to that of monarchy was complete” (Logan and Clendenen 2003, 986). While
Solomon was accredited wisdom, success, and riches, he also possessed serious folly. After
ascertaining a firm control on the kingdom, he “turned his attention to taking foreign wives and
9
Scott: Old Testament Themes
Published by Scholars Crossing, 2015
Scott 10
to building projects” (Logan and Clendenen 2003, 986). Solomon’s lust for power and worship
of foreign idols led to his destruction, and ultimately God’s judgment through the loss of the
kingdom.
The theme of kingship is intertwined all throughout the Hebrew text. While it takes
different forms and connotations, it is clear that God used kingship as a means to continue his
divine plan in the Old Testament.
Grace
The theme of grace is prevalent throughout the Old Testament, although many people
incorrectly assume it is specific to the New Testament. The contrast people draw between Old
Testament law and grace “would have puzzled the ancient Israelite for whom there was hardly
any greater display of God’s grace than that demonstrated in his giving of the law” (Hill and
Walton 1991, 175). Two Hebrew words are used often in the Old Testament in relation to the
idea of grace: hanan and hesed. The verb hanan is “found more than sixty time in the OT” and
“denotes kindness or graciousness in action, often expressed as a gift” (Heath 2003, 372).
Throughout the Old Testament, the word hanan is used to describe God’s graciousness to a
needy people. The related noun hen denotes “favor,” and the “emphasis shifts to the disposition
of the one who shows favor rather than the experience of the recipient of grace” (372). In many
verses, hen will be followed by the words “in the eyes of Yahweh,” conveying the idea that
certain humans can find favor in the eyes of the Lord.
In Exodus 34:6 God tells Moses, “I will be gracious to whom I will be gracious, and will
show mercy on whom I will show mercy.” Grace and mercy together connote God’s kindness
and faithfulness to his people. The word that most often substitutes for grace is hesed (372).
Although the word is found nearly 250 times in the Old Testament, it cannot be translated by a
10
The Kabod, Vol. 2, Iss. 1 [2015], Art. 5
https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/kabod/vol2/iss1/5
Scott 11
single English word, and most closely translates as a composite of grace, mercy, compassion,
and steadfast love; hesed is defined as “the disposition of one person toward another that
surpasses ordinary kindness and friendship” and “the inclination of the heart to express ‘amazing
grace’ to the one who is loved” (372). Heath continues to describe hesed as a term used in
covenant, for a committed, familial love that is “deeper than social expectations, duties, shifting
emotions or what is deserved or earned by the recipient” (372). God’s grace for humankind in
the form of hanan and hesed is hard to fathom, but it is meant to express God’s faithfulness to
his divine plan and chosen people, as well as to incite worship.
Themes of grace are stated or implied in almost every narrative of the Old Testament.
The grace of God is displayed through God’s faithfulness and commitment to his covenant
promises by the redemption of mankind through the flood, blessing of Abraham’s descendants,
deliverance from Egypt, and establishment of his presence and law among the Israelites. The
grace of God that is revealed in the Old Testament narratives is “seen in conjunction with God’s
judgment of sin” (375). Many readers focus on the judgment present in the Old Testament, and
miss the grace that God continually extends to the sinful Israel. Seeing as the term connotes
“unmerited divine favor,” (Weber 2009, 840) judgment and grace actually work together in the
Old Testament to bring about God’s will.
Generally, the doctrine of grace in the Old Testament “pertains to God’s activity rather
than to his nature,” and is “the dimension of divine activity that enables God to confront human
indifference and rebellion with an inexhaustible capacity to forgive and to bless” (Bilezikian
1988, 898). Therefore, grace is not simply a characteristic of a loving God, but it is a means
through which God expresses his unmerited forgiveness. In Exodus 34:6, God reveals himself as
a God “merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness.”
11
Scott: Old Testament Themes
Published by Scholars Crossing, 2015
Scott 12
The word mercy is written in conjunction with grace often in the Hebrew text. Through Isaiah
60:10, which states, “For in my wrath I struck you, but in my favor I have had mercy on you,”
God pours his mercy upon the unfaithful Israelites. Joshua 11:20 states: “For it was the Lord's
doing to harden their hearts…in order that they should be devoted to destruction and should
receive no mercy but be destroyed.” These verses convey that “grace brings mercy, and the
withholding of it brings judgment” (Millikin 2003, 678). The following list of narratives are
examples of God’s grace in the Old Testament: God’s deliverance of Noah’s family during the
flood, His rescue of Lot from Sodom and Gomorrah’s demise, His gift of divine revelation to
Moses, His assurance of divine presence, His selection of Israel for inheritance, His giving of the
Promised Land, His choice of David for kingship, His protection of the Israelite people in
captivity, and His prophecy of the coming Messiah (678).
An important aspect of grace in the Old Testament is its connection with the Law. God
demonstrates more grace by giving the Israelites law, “for [it] provide[s] practical, ethical and
spiritual guidance for reclaiming their lives in the Promised Land” (Heath 2003, 374). The
Israelites were in captivity for years prior to their deliverance into the Promised Land, and God
knew that they needed a set of instructions to guide their actions and attitudes. The book of
Leviticus details the change in thinking that occurred after the institution of the Law, whereby
the Israelites began to view the world, and everything in it, through the lens of holiness. God
graciously gave the gift of the Law so that the Israelites would know how to come into His
presence and how to relate to Him. The Law was not able to make them righteous, but in
recognition of the attitude of their hearts, God extended his grace.
Sacrifice
12
The Kabod, Vol. 2, Iss. 1 [2015], Art. 5
https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/kabod/vol2/iss1/5
Scott 13
Sacrifice in the Old Testament is conveyed mostly through the system of sacrifices and
offerings brought into the tabernacle, and later the temple, of the Lord. Many years passed prior
to and during the Hebrews’ enslavement in Egypt before Yahweh reestablished his presence
among his people. Exodus 40:34 states: “Then the cloud covered the tent of meeting, and the
glory of the Lord filled the tabernacle”; in Leviticus 1:1, the Lord “call[s] to Moses and [speaks]
to him from the tent of meeting.” These verses illustrate the establishment of Yahweh’s divine
presence in the temple and among the people after their deliverance from Egypt. The resulting
Law placed a crucial emphasis on the sacrificial system, which “consisted of the five major kinds
of sacrifices and offerings, the basic regulations…and the foundational applications” (Averbeck
2003, 706). The purpose of the sacrificial system was “to provide a means of approaching the
Lord in his place of manifest presence in Israel and to maintain that presence by preserving the
purity and holiness of the sanctuary” (706). Therefore, sacrifice in the Old Testament denoted an
act of worship and purification, as a way to relate to Yahweh.
Burnt offerings existed long before the Mosaic Law, and were used in cultures
throughout the ancient Near East. In Genesis 4, Cain and Abel made alters and presented
sacrifices to God. Noah presented a burnt offering after the flood in Genesis 8:20, and Abraham
and the other Patriarchs built alters throughout Genesis. Moses “ratified the covenant at Sinai by
means of burnt and peace offerings offered on a solitary alter constructed there” (706).
Furthermore, the presence of a sacrificial system was not unique to the Israelites. Many other
tribes and peoples used sacrifices in an attempt to honor their gods. The “sacrifices and offerings
were designed to serve the gods by meeting any physical need that they might have
had…Faithfulness to the preparation and presentation of them was an act of devotion” (Langston
and Charleston 2003, 1428). Therefore, sacrifice was always a part of ancient history. However,
13
Scott: Old Testament Themes
Published by Scholars Crossing, 2015
Scott 14
God desired for the Israelites to be set apart, and consequently gave them specific instructions for
their sacrifices through the Law.
There were five major types of sacrifices: burnt offerings, grain offerings, peace
offerings, sin offerings, and guilt offerings. According to Langston and Charleston, burnt
offerings were offered in the morning and evening, as well as on special days. Animals common
to these sacrifices were young bulls, lambs, goats, turtledoves, or pigeons, and they had to be
perfectly complete (1429). Most often, the animal depended on the wealth and ability of the
person making the sacrifice. Leviticus 5:7 declares, “But if he cannot afford a lamb, then he shall
bring to the LORD as his compensation for the sin that he has committed two turtledoves or two
pigeons, one for a sin offering and the other for a burnt offering.” Leviticus 5:7 stresses the
importance of the sacrificial system as an act of obedience and a posture of the heart, rather than
simply a religious ritual. When Araunah offered David his threshing floor to make sacrifices on,
David refused and said, “I will not offer burnt offerings to the Lord my God that cost me
nothing” (2 Samuel 24:24). David knew that the underlying principle of sacrifice was to give up
something of value in order to honor and glorify Yahweh.
Grain offerings were from the harvest of the land. These offerings were the only type that
did not require bloodshed, and they were “composed of fine flour mixed with oil and
frankincense” and were sometimes “cooked into cakes prior to taking it to the priest” (Langston
and Charleston 2003, 1430). There is no reason given for the grain offerings in the Old
Testament; however, “it may have symbolized the recognition of God’s blessing in the harvest
by a society based to a large degree on agriculture” (1430). Therefore, the grain offering was an
expression of devotion and thankfulness for Yahweh’s provision.
14
The Kabod, Vol. 2, Iss. 1 [2015], Art. 5
https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/kabod/vol2/iss1/5
Scott 15
Peace offerings consisted of the sacrifice of a perfect bull, cow, lamb, or goat, during
which time the individual laid a hand on the animal before killing it, and afterwards partook in a
“meal of celebration” from certain parts of the meat that were leftover (1430). These peace
offerings were in response to unexpected blessings or answers to prayer. They were also
welcome as a general sign of thankfulness to Yahweh, and were performed at many religious
festivals. Contrary to popular opinion that sacrificial offerings in the Old Testament were
impersonal and harsh, the Israelites saw the peace offerings as a way to rejoice in thankfulness to
Yahweh and display their adoration.
Sin offerings were “designed to purify the sanctuary from sin that was committed
unintentionally, and thereby allow God to continue dwelling with His people” (1430). In a
culture that saw the world through the lens of what was holy, it was imperative for them to
reconcile themselves after sinning. In other words, “the violator of the law could gain
forgiveness before God, while the unclean person could be brought back into the condition of
being ritually clean” (Averbeck 2003, 719). The guilt offering, which was very similar to, and
almost overlapped, the sin offering, “was concerned supremely with restitution,” and most often,
guilt offerings were performed to cleanse a leper, an adulterer, or one who had broken a vow
(719).
While sacrifice was an integral part of the religious law in the Old Testament, it
represented Israel’s heart for and devotion to Yahweh. The sacrifices were carried out
individually and corporately, conveying their unity as Yahweh’s people. Ultimately, sacrifice
“demonstrated that God had provided a way for dealing with sin” and for dwelling among his
people (719).
Prophetism
15
Scott: Old Testament Themes
Published by Scholars Crossing, 2015
Scott 16
Prophecy is defined as “reception and declaration of a word from the Lord through a
direct prompting of the Holy Spirit and the human instrument thereof” (Songer 2003, 1333).
According to Songer, there are three key Hebrew terms that are used to describe the prophet:
ro’eh and hozeh mean “seer,” and the most important term, navi,’ usually means “prophet,”
which denotes “one who is called to speak” (1333). Kings and priests usually inherited their
positions in society, whereas God specifically elected prophets. God used prophets for long or
short periods of time throughout the Old Testament, and there is no biblical distinction between
the prophetic office and the prophetic gift; while it is tempting to view prophets as titles, such as
those of kings, “the work of a prophet is not the fulfilling of an office, but the performance of a
function” (MacRae 2009, 994). Although the term prophet may falsely seem to be relative, all
true prophets share certain God-given traits and abilities.
In order to be classified as a prophet, the prophets of the Old Testament needed to share
several key characteristics, the first being a call from the Lord, for “attempting to prophesy
without such a commission was false prophecy” (Songer 2003, 1334). In Jeremiah 14:14, the
Lord says: “The prophets are prophesying lies in my name. I did not send them, nor did I
command them or speak to them. They are prophesying to you a lying vision, worthless
divination, and the deceit of their own minds.” God makes it very clear that prophets must
receive word directly from Him, and often they were “allowed to see into the throne room and
heavenly court” (1334). However, their word from the Lord usually came in many different ways
and forms, such as dreams, visions, or direct communication. Whatever the means by which the
word was communicated to them, all prophets spoke the word of God – they were “primarily
spokespersons who called His people to obedience by appealing to Israel’s past and future”
(1334). For example, through Israel’s past blessings and future judgment, God places emphasis
16
The Kabod, Vol. 2, Iss. 1 [2015], Art. 5
https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/kabod/vol2/iss1/5
Scott 17
on social justice and mercy for those in need. Prophets did not just speak the Word, they also
acted out much of what they communicated. Hosea’s reconciliation with his wife was a parable
of God’s restored relationship with Israel. Many prophets performed miracles, or at least saw “a
miraculous fulfillment of God’s word” (1334). Prophets were also rather like ministers, in that
they were to watch the people, test them, and ensure that they were following the will of God. In
Jeremiah 6:27 God claims that he has made his prophet “a tester of metals among my people,
that [he] may know and test their ways.” Finally, an especially important role of the prophet was
that of an intercessor. In 1 Kings 17:17-24, the prophet Elijah sojourns with a widow, whose son
dies during the stay. Elijah prays to the Lord to save the boy, and is able to present the widow
with her resurrected son. She then praises the Lord and exclaims that Elijah is truly a man of
God. Elijah was able to successfully intercede on behalf of the woman.
While all of the previously stated qualities are characteristics of prophets, there are also
signs of false prophets. The first example of a false prophet in the Old Testament is Baal.
Jeremiah 2:8 and 23:13 both speak of people who prophesied by Baal. When Jezebel “introduced
Baal worship into Israel, groups of men appeared who were called ‘prophets of Baal,’” although
there is no biblical evidence to assume that they ever claimed to receive word directly from Baal
(MacRae 2009, 1005). 1 Kings 22 reveals an incident that neatly describes the issue of false
prophecy within the Old Testament. When Ahab invited Jehoshaphat to attack Ramoth Gilead,
he sought the counsel of his men that claimed to be prophets. All of his prophets declared that he
would triumph in battle, but Jehoshaphat asked whether there was not one more prophet that
could advise him. Ahab reluctantly brought a prophet named Micaiah, who usually prophesied
distressing messages. Micaiah revealed that Ahab and his men would be destroyed in battle, and
angrily Ahab threw him in prison; yet, just as Micaiah prophesied, Ahab died in battle and the
17
Scott: Old Testament Themes
Published by Scholars Crossing, 2015
Scott 18
hypocrisy of the false prophets was revealed. However, it is important to note that even true
prophets were “fallible and sinful” and in their human capacity “apt to err”; it was only “when
directly presenting a message that God chose to give them that their words were free from error”
(1006). Due to the confusing nature of prophesy in the Old Testament, Moses recorded certain
tests in answer to the Israelites’ question, “How may we know the word that the Lord has not
spoken” (Deuteronomy 18:21)? Moses’ instructions can be summarized as: a true prophet must
speak in the name of the Lord; a true prophet may produce a sign or a wonder; a prediction given
by a true prophet may be visibly fulfilled; and the most important test of all – a prophet’s word
will agree with previous revelations (MacRae 2009, 1006-1007).
Prophets played a major role in Israel’s history. The first prophet in the Old Testament is
generally considered to be Moses. He was a prophetic prototype, and in Deuteronomy 34:10
Israel looks for a prophet like Moses, claiming, “There has not arisen a prophet since in Israel
like Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face.” Deborah, the prophetess, assisted the Israelites in
securing the Promised Land by predicting victory and the right time to attack, as detailed in
Judges. God used Samuel, who transitioned the Israelites into a period of monarchy, and was
identified as a “prophet, priest, and judge” (Songer 2003, 1333) to anoint Saul as king and defeat
the Philistines in battle. Gad, Nathan, Elijah, and Elisha all advised the kings on God’s word.
These early prophets “did more than predict the future; their messages called Israel to honor
God,” and “their prophecies were not general principles but specific words corresponding to
Israel’s historical context” (1333). The writing prophets arose amongst the political turmoil
around 750 BC, when the Assyrians rose to power. Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, and Micah all
prophesied during this difficult time period. Jeremiah and Ezekiel responded to the threat of the
Babylonians with their prophecies, and the beginning of the Persian Empire brought about
18
The Kabod, Vol. 2, Iss. 1 [2015], Art. 5
https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/kabod/vol2/iss1/5
Scott 19
prophets such as Obadiah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi (1333). The prophets underwent
much persecution and critique, but they were all committed to conveying God’s messages for his
people and continually ensuring that the Israelites turned back to God’s plan.
The Old Testament can be easily misunderstood, and a basic understanding of the themes
of covenant, kingship, grace, sacrifice, and prophetism is crucial. Through covenant, Yahweh
reveals aspects of his divine nature and relates to his people; through kingship, Yahweh discloses
his plan for Israel as a nation; through grace, Yahweh extends unmerited mercy and loving-
kindness upon his chosen people; through sacrifice, Yahweh allows the Israelites to be cleansed
and sanctified in His presence; and through prophetism, Yahweh aids Israel in understanding His
divine calling for their lives. God uses each of these themes as a powerful means of effecting
self-revelation throughout the Old Testament and a beautiful promise of the coming Messiah.
19
Scott: Old Testament Themes
Published by Scholars Crossing, 2015
Scott 20
Bibliography
Averbeck, Richard. “Sacrifices and Offerings.” In Dictionary of the Old Testament Pentateuch,
edited by T. D. Alexander and David Baker, 706-732. Madison, WI: InterVarsity, 2003.
Bilezikian, Gilbert. “Grace.” Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker
Books, 1988. 898-900.
Boyd, W. F. “King, Kingship.” In Hastings’ Dictionary of the Bible, edited by James
Hastings, 515-516. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1989.
Craigie, Peter. “Covenant.” BAKER Encyclopedia of the Bible. Edited by Walter Elwell. Vol. 1.
Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1988. 530-536.
Fowler, Donald. "Kingship in the Old Testament." Old Testament Life and Literature
Symposium. Liberty University, Lynchburg. Oct. 2014. Lecture.
Heath, E. A. “Grace.” In Dictionary of the Old Testament Pentateuch, edited by T. D.
Alexander and David Baker, 373-375. Madison, WI: InterVarsity, 2003.
Hill, Andrew E., and John H. Walton. In A Survey of the Old Testament, 175, 273-274. Grand
Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1991.
Langston, Scott, and E. Ray Charleston. “Sacrifice and Offering.” In Holman Illustrated Bible
Dictionary, edited by Chad Brand, Charles Draper, and Archie England, 1428-1431.
Nashville, TN: Holman Bible, 2003.
Logan, Phil, and E. Ray Clendenen. “King, Kingship.” In Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary,
edited by Chad Brand, Charles Draper, and Archie England, 986. Nashville, TN: Holman
Bible, 2003.
20
The Kabod, Vol. 2, Iss. 1 [2015], Art. 5
https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/kabod/vol2/iss1/5
Scott 21
MacRae, A. A. “Prophets and Prophecy.” The Zondervan Encyclopedia of the Bible. Edited by
Merrill Tenney and Moises Silva. Revised ed. Vol. 4. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan,
2009. 992-1026.
Millikin, Jimmy. “Grace.” In Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, edited by Chad Brand,
Charles Draper, and Archie England, 678. Nashville, TN: Holman Bible, 2003.
Moss, R. W. “Covenant.” In Hastings’ Dictionary of the Bible, edited by James Hastings, 161-
162. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1989.
Payne, D. F. “Kingship.” The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Edited by Geoffrey
Bromiley. Vol. 3. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 1986. 21.
Payne, J. B. “Covenant.” The Zondervan Encyclopedia of the Bible. Edited by Merrill Tenney
and Moises Silva. Revised ed. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2009. 1060-1068.
Songer, Harold. “Prophecy, Prophets.” In Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, edited by Chad
Brand, Charles Draper, and Archie England, 1333-1336. Nashville, TN: Holman Bible,
2003.
Unterman, Jeremiah. “Covenant.” In Harper Collins Bible Dictionary, edited by Mark Powell,
158-159. 3rd ed. New York, NY: HarperCollins, 2011.
Waltke, Bruce, and Charles Yu. “The Gift of Kingship.” In An Old Testament Theology, 680-
701. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2007.
Waltke, Bruce, and Charles Yu. “The Gift of the Abrahamic Covenant.” In An Old Testament
Theology. 305-345. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2007.
Waltke, Bruce, and Charles Yu. “The Noahic Covenant.” In An Old Testament Theology, 284-
304. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2007.
21
Scott: Old Testament Themes
Published by Scholars Crossing, 2015
Scott 22
Weber, C. P. “Grace.” The Zondervan Encyclopedia of the Bible. Edited by Merrill Tenney and
Moises Silva. Revised ed. Vol. 2. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2009. 840-842.
Williamson, P. “Covenant.” In Dictionary of the Old Testament Pentateuch, edited by T. D.
Alexander and David Baker, 139-155. Madison, WI: InterVarsity, 2003.
22
The Kabod, Vol. 2, Iss. 1 [2015], Art. 5
https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/kabod/vol2/iss1/5
