Application of Spelling Research.

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 061 218

TE 002 861

AUTHOR

Allred, Ruel A.

TITLE Application of Spelling Research.

PUB DATE Jun 66

NOTE 29p.

JOURNAL CIT

Curriculum Bulletin: v22 n268 p1-26 June 1966

EDRS PRICE

DESCRIPTORS

ABSTRACT

MF-$0.65 HC-$3.29

Adults; Children; Educational Change; Educational

Needs; *Elementary School Students; Individualized

Instruction; *Language Research; Learning Experience;

Organization; *Research Needs; *Spelling; Teaching

Techniques; Tests; Word Lists

Research findings on the subject of spelling have

been compiled in this paper to assist individuals attempting to

.mprove their effectiveness in the classroom. Investigations in

spelling instruction have shown wide differences among students in

all classes. These differences point to needs for classroom

organization and instruction methods that will permit teachers to

meet individual needs within their classrooms. Two major

responsibilities of teachers of spelling are, first, wise choice of

words to be taught, and second, application of effective teaching

methods as they teach the selected words. Selection of words should

be based on child and adult usage. These words have been largely

determined by a series of well-conducted studies. Research in

methodology has produced information that should be used by teachers

as they organize for and decide on methods of instruction. The

findings tend to support the following conclusions:

(1) Children

learn to spell many words in an incidental way as they study other

subjects;

(2) The column, or list, approach is more efficient than is

the context approach;

(3) Study steps have been determined which are

helpful to children when they learn to spell a word;

(4)

The

test-study-test approach is superior to the study-test approach f om

the middle of the third grade on; and (5) Children benefit from

learning only a few spelling rules. Continued attention is

recommended in the areas of spelling reform, application of past

research and proven study steps and individualized instruction.

(Author/CR)

timeitium

Odin

APPLICATION OF SPELLING RESEARCH

Prepared by

Ruel A. Allred

Assistant Professor of Education

Brigham Young University

Published by:

School of Education

University of Oregon

Eugene, Oregon

97403

til, DEFARIMENI Of HEA TH. EDUCATION & WELFARE

OFFICE Of EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMFHT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED

EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM 1HE

PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT.

POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS

STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL

OFFICE OF EDUCATION

POSITION OR POLICY

No. 268

Vol. XXII

June, 1966

"PERMSSION TO REPROGUCI THIS

COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTER

TO ERIC AM ORGANIZATIONS OPERATING

UNDER AGREEMENTS WITH ME U.S. OFFICE OF

EDUCATION. FURTHER REPRODUCTION OUTSWE

THE ERIC SYSTEM REQUIRES PERMISSION OF

THE COPYRIGHT OWNER.",,

Editor:

Hugh B. Wood

Associate Editors:

lAwrene Fish

.16h*Nanqfi''

Arthur' d., #eirn

Vernice

*TA

Ruth',W.-!-

Willard

APPLICATION OF SPELLING RESEARCH

Author

Rue]. A. Allred, D.Ed.

Assistant Professor of Education

Brigham Young University

Advising Editor

rdan B. Utsey, P.Ed.

Assistant Professor of Education

University of Oregon

I. Introduction

APPLICATION OF SPELLING RESEARCH

Dr. Ruel A. Allred

Page

Problems Faced by the Speller. . .

Attempted Reform. ..

. . ....

.6 +6

Present System Must Be Taught .. 4 4 4

4..

Challenges of the Spelling Teacher

Individual Differences in Spelling

Choice of Vocabulary and Methods of Teaching

1. Choice of words

2. Methods of teaching

Analysis of

Jthods and Approaches

Incidental approach

Context approach versus column approach

Effectiveness of study steps

Test-study-test approach versus study-test approach.

Value of rules in spelling

Value of phonetic instruction

Individualized approaches

Time allotments for spelling

IV. Causes of and Overcoming Spelling Deficiency

. .

. 14

Frequent Causes of Spelling Deficiency

B. Overcoming Spelling Deficiencies

Auuitory imagery

Visual imagery

Future Needs in Spelling Instructi n

A. Spelling Reform

Application of Past Research

Application of Study Steps

Individualized Instruction

Visual Imagery

Future Developm nts

..... .

. .

VI.

Summary

Bibliography

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

One of the more widely researched areas of the curriculum is the teaching of

spelling.

Even though findings reveal some conflicts, there is much agreement

from which the classroom practitioner can gain helpful direction.

It will be ob-

served that much of the research was conducted prior to 1940; and while a few

researchers have attempted to investigate previously unexplored aspects of spell-

ing, the most recent research has substantiated earlier findings.

In his review of spelling research, publishe0 in the 1960 edition of the

Encyclopediaof_Educati_onal Research, Ernest Horn stated that:

While the existing evidence will be refined, enlarged, and in

some instances, corrected by new research, the chief problem to-

day appears to be a more critical and universal application of

the evidence now available.

It appears that one of the tasks before the spelling teacher is to search the

literature and discover and apply the evidence new available.

By bringing to-

gether pertinent early and recent research findings, the authors of thispaper

hope to assist individuals attempting to improve their teaching effectiveness.

Ernest Horn.

"Spelling,"

Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Third

Edit on

(Edited by Chester M. Harris).

New York:

The Macm llan CompdK7T1-960,

1330.

CHAPTER 11

PROBLEMS FACED BY THE SPELLER

It is unlikely that a person can obtain an adequate understanding of spelling

research findings and their implications without first obtaining some knowledge

and understanding of the nature of the spelling process and ihe problems people

face when they use the 26 letters in the English alphabet to represent 50 differ-

ent sounds. Not only is one written symbol frequently required to represent more

than one sound, but a complicated system has "evolved" in which two symbols are

sometimes written to represent one sound in one context and a different sound in

another context.

A major source of confusion results from the schwa (a) sound

which is represented in different words by any of the vowels a, e, 1, o, or u,

(e.g., general, arithmetic, determine, become, study) and it is sometimes repre-

sented by combimtions of these vowels, (e.g., certain and question).

Children

and adults are often confused by the fact that the letter "c" has no sound of its

own and usually sounds like "s" when followed by the letters 1, e, or y.

usually sounds like "k" when followed by other letter: in the alphabet.

Boyeri

has given examples of fifteen different ways in which the-loeg "a" sound can be

written, and Horn2 states that "the long le? sound is spelled 14 ways in common

words and only about one-fifth of the time with /el alone."

The letters x and q

appear to serve no useful purpose and many silent letters along with other in-

consistencies are sources of confusion for the speller of EngliSh.

It should be

recognized that some students who are branded "dull" or "lazy" are often victims

of an inconsistent system which they find impossible or, at best, difficult to

master.

Attempted Reform

The problems of the speller have not gone unnoticed and through the years

several serious and scholarly attempts have been made to reform the spelling of

the English language.

Attempts to "bring order" out of orthographic confusion

have been under way since the middle of the fourteenth century.

Each century

since that time has seen serious attempts to overcome the problems.

Benjamin

Franklin make extensive changes in American spelling in 1768, and Noah Webster

introduced many new spellings.

Since the latter part of the eighteenth century,

several organized societies have developed and recommended the adoption of

rules which would have greatly simplified English spelling; however,

Although the changes recommended by these various organizations

were scholarly and, in the main, conservative, neither the general

rules suggested for simplifying our spelling nor the lists of words

recommended for simplification have much influence, unfortunately,

on present-day spelling.3

'Harvey Kinsey Boyer. "Why You Can't Spell,"

Science Djgest, 37:83-86,

January, 1955.

2Ernest Horn. op,_cit., p. 1338.

p. 1338.

Present System Must be Taught

Efforts are still being made to simplify

the language problems; but

past ex-

perience dictates that teachers in the

classrooms must not wait for

widespread

changes before they teach children

how to spell, for it Is

most likely that chil-

dren will have completed school before

hoped-for changes will be

realized.

would appear that teachers

are faced with the problem of doing

the best they can

with the system they have;

and It seems wise that while

people work for Changes,

they must consider the obstacles

to reform and appreciate

the many advantages of

the present system.

It remains the educator's

responsibility to do all he

can to

help children become

proficient with the system

as it exists.

41. J. Stevens.

"Obstacles to Spelling Reform

English Journal

54:85-90,

February, 1965.

CHAPTER III

CHALLENGES OF THE SPELLING TEACHER

Individual Differences In S el 1 Ing.

It has been in our schools more than in any other place that

individual differences have come to our attention.1

Research and experience have shown the range of spelling ability and achieve-

ment to be great among students in all grades.2

Observant teachers and others

who have access to written work or spelling tests of school children are very

much aware of these differences.

The differences have been illustrated in re-

search since the early part of this century.

In 1913, Buckingham3 conducted a

study of children in grades three through eight titled "Spelling Ability, Its

Measurement and Distributions"from which he reported that pupils of every grade

between the third and eighth grades perform like typical children of every other

grade within the range.

In 1927, George D. Strayer4 conducted an extensive sur-

vey of the schools of Duval County, Florida, including the city of Jacksonville.

In the sixth grade he reported a range in spelling abiiity equal to ten school

grades. There was a range of two and one-half years between the lowest and

highest scores of those pupils in the middle fifty percent.

This range increased

to almost three years in the eighth grade.

It has been noted in many instances

that there is a spread of acadecdc achievement as children grow older and pro-

gress from grade to grade.

Choice of Vocabulary and Methods of Teaching

There are two important and distinct problems involved in the teaching of

spelling:

first, the choice of words to be taught, and second, the methods of

teaching and learning those words.

Leona E. Tyler.

The Psychology of Human Differences.

New York:

Appleton-

Century-Crofts, Inc., 1956. p. 109.

Thomas D. Horn, and Henry J. Otto.

Spelling Instruction:

A Curriculum

Wide Approach.

Austin, Texas:

Bureau of Laboratory School, University of Texas,

1994.

15.

3B. R. Buckingham.

Spelling, AbiJity, Its Measurement and Distributions.

Teachers College Contributions, No. 59.

New York: Columbia University, 1913.

p. 32.

4George D. Strayer.

Report of the Survey of the Schools of Duval County,

Florida including the City of Jacksonville.

New York: Columbia University

Press, 1927.

p. 147.

r--

Choice of words.

It is obvious 1hat the choice of words to be included

a spelling program

will

in part, at least, be based upon those that children

habitually use.

Horni has stated, "The frequency with which words are written

by children in a given grade

is now generally regarded as the primary erinciple

for the selection of werds for that

grade."

In another publication he

reported,

"It seems desirable

that the words to be taught in any grade should

be chosen

from among those words that appear

in the writing done by children in that grade

and from words used in adult

writing,thus insuring both present and future value."

Several studies have been conducted for the purpose

of discovering which words

should be Included in spelling programs.

Among those which determined either

children or adult writing vecabularies are

investigations by Ttorndike and

Lorge,' Fitzgerald,4 Doich,'

Horn,6 and Rinsland.7

A great deal of detailed ex-

amination has been done on the words identified by these

studies.

They have beer

anaiyzed according to usage by children in specific

grades, by frequency of use

by children in general, and by frequency

of use by adults.

It appears that the

results of these researches can serve as guides for people who prepare

basic

lists of words to be used in regular spelling programs and

thus help solve one

of the two important problems involved in the teaching of

spelling.

Methods of teaching.

The second problem involved in the teaching of

spell-

ing is that of selecting the proper instructional techniques for teaching words

after they have been selected.

Even though considerable research has been done

in identifying kinds of spelling errors made, there has been little change

in the

Ernest Horn, Teachine Spell_ino.

What Research Says to the Teacher, No. 36

American Education Research Association.

Washington

D. C.

the Association,

1954.

p. 7.

Ernest Horn.

"Spelling", Encyclopedia of Educational Researche Third

Edition (Edited by Chester W. Harris).

New York:

The MacMillan Company, 1960.

p. 1344.

Edward L. Thorndike and Irving Lorge.

The Teacher's Word Boek of 30 000

Words.

New York:

Teachers College, Columbia University, 1944.

James A. Fitzgerald.

"Words Misspelled Most Frequently by Children of the

Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Grade Levels in Life Outside the

School,fl Journal et

Educatioeal" Research.

26:213-18, November11932.

5Edward W. Doich.

Better Spelling.

Champaign, Illinois:

The Garrard

Press, 1960.

6Ernest Horn.

A Bas,c Writing Vocabui_ary.

lowa City:

University of Iowa,

1926.

Henry D. Rinsland.

A Basic VocabOary of Elementary Schoe_i Children.

New York:

The MacMillan CUmpany, 1945.

techniques of teachin9 spelling from the early days of this century until the

decade of the 19501s.

Fitzgerald2 says:

Although many spelling investigations have been carried out

during the past half century, improvement In teaching of spelling

has been slow.

One of the chief difficulties seems to have been

that the results of research and experimentations were not readily

available to the teacher.

Analysis.of Methods and Approaches

Some methods and approaches of spelling instruction that have been tried,

tested, or highly recommended include:

(1) an incidental method by which child-

ren were expected to learn how to spell as they progressed through the grades

without formal instruction in spelling and without the use of organized spelling

materials, (2) study of words in context as opposed to lists, (3) the effeotive-'

ness of study steps, (4) the test-study-test approach versus the study-test

approach, (5) a method by which chlidren spell through application of learned

spelling rules, (6) a method by which children spell by application of phonetic

analysis techniques, and of late, (7) individualized spelling approaches.

Also

investigated has been the amount of time each week that can be used effectively

in spelling instruction.

Incidental approach. Cons derable support has been voiced for a purely

incidental approach to spelling since the latter part of the nineteenth century.

Advocates of this position have not been without opponents, however.3

The

evidence of the past several years appears to support the position that even

though spelling performance improves as a resull" of incidental learning, more

than an incidental approach is desirable.

Fitzgeraid,4 who refers to Sr. Gervase

Blanchard,says,

Her findings coupled with the findings of Gates and others in-

dicate that teaching the individual child a method by which he can

learn to spell a word in a systematic manner Is highly important.

It seems pedagogically unsound to abandon the child to a trial and

error procedure for learning to spell a word.

'Paul R. and Jean S. Hanna,

Today,u Instructor, 70:6, Nov mbar,

1960

2James A. Fitzgerald. The/Teaching of Speliing.

Milwaukee: The Bruce

Publishing Co. 1951.

p. 3.

3John E. Wallin.

Spelling Efficiency in Relation to 1112.21., Grade and Sex

and the Question of Transfer.

Baltimore:

Warwick and York, 1911.

Fitzgerald, abk. cit., p. 40.

Hanna and Moore' report:

The subject-matter teachers have a serious responsibility in

the business of checking spelling.

However, spelling also needs

to be taught separately in definite work sessions. We must not

allow spelling to "go by the board" in the sense of being casual

or incidental; for proficiency in spelling is basic to success

in all subjects where ideas must be expressed through writing.

It has been found that spelling has a high correlation with some phases of

a c ild's ability in other subjects. Positive correlations exist between spell-

ing and vocabulary03 and spelling and reading.4

Context approach versus column approach.

Several individuals have investi-

gated ways in which words should be taught for maximum efficiency and effective-

ness. Hlowley5 compared the list method with the sentence method and concluded

that pupils who use the list method did better than those who used the sentence

method.

Winch6 in his summary conclusions of eight experiments udod the term

"direct" for the study of words in list and the term "indirect" for study of words

in context when he concluded the "direct" method of teaching spelling had proved

superior to the "indirect" method.

He also indicated that use of the "direct"

method resulted In superior transfer value when children write dictation, greater

usage in original compositions, less time consumed, and better delayed recall

than did the "Indirect" method.

Possibly the most influential study that attempts

to answer this question was reported by McKee7 in which he concluded the columnar

method to be superior to context forms of spelling instruction.

1Paul R. Hanna and James T. Moore

Jr.

"Spelling--From Spoken Word to

Written Symbol," E_Iementary School Jou_rnal

53:335, February, 1953.

2Gertrude Hildreth.

Teaching 511,127111sia.

New York:

Henry Holt and Company,

1955.

p, 27.

3Arnie E. Richmond. "Children's

Spelling Needs and the Implications of

Research," Journal of Experimental Education, 29:19 September, 1960.

41da E. Morrison and Ida F. Perry.

"Spelling and Reading Relationships

with Incidence of Retardation and ACceleration," Journal of Educational Research

52:225, February, 1959.

W. E. Howley and Jackson Gallup. "The 'List' Versus the 'Sentence' Method

of Teaching Spelling," 4ournal of Education0 Research, 5:310, April, 1922.

W. H. Winch. "Additional Researches on Learning to Spell," Journ0 of

EducatJonal_ PSY0kology, 7:109-10, February, 1916.

-Paul McKee. "Teaching Spelling by Column and Context Forms," Journal of

Education! i_ Research, 15:254, Apri 10

1927.

In studies that have been

conducted for the purpose of discovering which

method -- the list approach or

context approach to spelling -- is most efficient,

the bulk of th

evidence favors the list method.

However, a ten week study re-

ported by Hahn' in 1960 resulted

in the conclusion that the contextual method Is

"at least" as effective as ti-os

column method.

Effectiveness of stud

ste s.

Considerable research has been done to deter-

mine the best methods for learning to

spell a word.

The steps that have been

well established and are recommended are:

Pronounce each-word carefUlly

Look carefully at each part of the word as

it Is prOnounced

Say the letters in sequence

Attempt to nacall how the word looks and spell the

word to oneself

Check this attempt to recall

Write the word

Check this spelling attempt

Repeat the above steps if necessary

The above (or si

ilar) steps are found in most modern

spelling books.

It has been the experience of the authors

that the study steps are valid and

helpful when properly applied, but children

often have difficulty when they

apply

the steps to words they are attempting to learn.

Part of the problem appears to

be that children memorize the study steps,

but few learn to apply them

properly.

Others have experienced difficulty In

getting children to apply the study

steps

and have attempted to m9d1fy them to make

them more functional.

One such attempt

is reported by Gilstrar fn which the recommended

study steps were:

Look at the word and say it softly.

If it has more than one

part, say it again, part by part, looking

at each part as you

say it

Look at the letters and say each one,

If the word has more

than one part, say the letters part by

part

Write the word without looking at the book.

It would appear that simplified study procedures

might be more functional for

children than the more involved ones, but need

considerable research before

they can justifiably replace the study steps

already proven effective.

1Willlam P. Hahn.

Com arative Efficieney of the

Contextual Methods.

Unpublished doctoral dissertation.

University of Pitt;i7i-rWrggb,

2Ernest Horn.

Teachine Spelling.

What Research Says to the Teacher, No. 3.

American Education Research

Assocration.

Washington, D. C.:

the Association,

1954.

p. 12.

3Robert Gilstrap.

"Development of independent Spelling

Skills in the

Intermediate Grades,I, Elementary

English, 39:481-3+

May, 1967

Test7study7test approach_versys_study7test approach.

Research findings

comparing the study-test method and the test-study method, strongly favor the

test-study method.'

Gates2 found this true for all grades above early third.

Before early third the study-test had more favorable nasults but thereaft-r

the test-study produced statistically significant differences.

Fitzgerald

appears to support the idea that a pretest method may even be better

in early

grades, and findings reported by Thomas Horn4 support the yalue of using a pre-

test in the early grades.

In the sixth grade, Thomas Horn

found the corrected

test to contribute "from 90 percen+ to 95 percent of the achievement resulting

from combined effort of the pronunciation exercise, corrected test and

study.'!

He writes, "the corrected test appears to be the most important single factor

contributing to achievement in spelling,"

The use of self-check tests for re-

inforcement of spelling lessons was found valuable and it "results In the learn-

ing of a significantly greater number of words than usual techniques for

teach-

ing spelling:0

In 1962, Schoephoerster7 substantiated the above results for

students with high and medium spelling ability.

In his study, fifth grade

students with below average ability benefited more from study-test procedures,

1 James A. Fitzgerald.

The Teaching of Spel)ing,

Milwaukee:

The Bruce

Publishing Co

1951, -pp. 39-40.

Arthur I. Gates.

"An Experimental Comparison of the Study-Test and Test-

Study Methods in Spelling," The Journal of Edgeatlonal Psychology, 22:160

January, 1931,

James A. Fitzgerald,

"Research in Spelling and Handwriting," Review of

Educatlonal Research, 22:91, April, 1952.

4Thomas D. Horn.

"Research in Spelling," Elementary English, 37:174-7,

March, 1960.

5Thomas D. Horn.

"The Effect of the Corrected Test on Learning to Spell,"

Elementary School Journal, 47:285, January, 1947,

6Gerald C. Elchholz.

"Spelling Improvement Through a Self-Check Device,"

Elementary, School Journal

64:376, April, 1964.

7H. Schoephoerster.

"Research into Variations of the Test-Study-Plan of

Teaching Spelling," Elementer:_ Eriall_sh, 39:460-2, May, 1962.

Value of_ rules in spelling.

Over thirty years ago, several studies were

conducted for tfi-e purpose of answering the question,' "To what

extent should rules

be taught in order to help Oildren leer

to spell?q

Several of these studies

have been reported by Foran,

Sartorius,- and King.'

Foran's pertinent summary

may he paraphrased as follows:

Only a few rules should be taught.

Those taught should have

no or few exceptions.

Some rules should be taught, for children will generalize what

they have learned and such generalization should be directed as

far as the spelling of English words permits.

Only one rule should be taught at a time.

A rule should be taught only when there is need of it.

The teaching of the rules should be integrated with the

arrangements or grouping of the words in the textbook.

Rules should be taught inductively rather than deductively.

There should be ample reviews of the rules both In the grades

in which they have been learned and in the fellowing grades.

Tests of knowledge of the rule should insist not so much upon

logical precision as on comprehension and ability to use the

rule.

Even though the bulk of past and present evidence supports the above

findings, there are some reports which are got in complete agreement.

One such

report was made by Sister Evangelist Marie,'

Her findings support the idea

that children benefit more from studying words according to Meaning than they

do by studying rules either Inductively or deductively.

She found the deductive

method superior to the inductive one.

Her study was conducted over a period of

only eight weeks, however, and she implied that pupils probably lacked sufficient

training in forming generalzations.

Thomas G. Foran.

The Psychology 21LIAL Teaching of aelliesl.

Washington,

D. C.:

Catholic Education Press, 1934.

College, Columbi

Luella M.

El sht

Sartorlus.

Generalizativnin Spellipil.

New York:

Teachers

a University, 1931.

King.

1.41arnincimslApplying Spel 1 ine. ROleS In Prades Three ja

Teachers College, Columbia UniVersity, 1932.

Sister Evangelist Marie.

"Study of Teaching Rules in Spellinv

EleMentarv English

40:602-4

tober, 1963,

Value of phonetic instruction.

Horn'

sums up most research findings when

he says that a child's knowledge of phonetic

principles has been found to play

an important role in his

being able to spell, but instruction In phonics should

be regarded as an aid to spelling rather than a

substAtute for the systematic

study of words in the spelling list.

Hanna Qnd Moore gixe support to the need

to learn phonetic generalizations while

Hahe and lbeling

find that phonetic

drill

is no particular aid to spelling ability.

Hahn says, "The results of the

spelling test did not bear out the assumption that increasing phonics ability

increases spelling ability."

Individualized approaches.

The individualized approach to spelling has

been quite controversial in that no common agreement exists on what

constitutes

an individualized approach to spelling.

To some teachers it Is little more than

incidental learning.

In this method children are expected to find for themselves

the words they feel should be learned, but they receive no formal

spelling in-

struction.

To others individualized spelling is defined much differently.

Some

teachers attempt to place children at the level of learning for which they are

prepared, and students are taught needed skills according to proven methods

instruction.

Even though people are aware of the need to consider individual

differences,

there are relatively few studies reported in which indtvidealized

mettiods have

been used.

Some writers, e. g., Hal1,5 Eisman,6

Goldberg,7 and Dunne,' have

published articles which have pointed out the need for individualized instruc-

tion and in which some current practices were described.

Among the few research

lErnest Horn.

Teaching Spell Inch

What Research Says to the Teacher, No. 3.

American Education ResearCh Association.

Washington, D. C.:

the Association,

1954.

p. 24.

Paul R. Hanna and James T. Moore, Jr., 42.1.

p. 337.

3W1 111am P. Hahn,

a.. cit.

F. W. !baling.

"Supplementary Phonics Instruction and Reading and Spelling

Ab 1

ty," Elementary School Journal, 62:152-56, December, 1961,

Norman Hell.

"Individualize Your Spelling Instruction,"

a_srEieIta-

English, 39:476-7, May, 1962.

6Edward EisMan.

"IndividualizingSpelling," Pementarv English, 39:478-80,

May, 1962.

A. L. Goldberg.

"Programmed Spelling:

A Case Study;" AudJorVisual

Instruction, 8:94-6, February, 1963.

Frank Dunne.

"Multilevel Spelling Program Spurs Each Pppil to Achieve

Maximum for Self; New York State Education, 4722, 29

May, 1960.

studies that have been reported,

Crosland' discovered no significant differences

between an indiv.i,dualized approach and a whole-class approach at the

eighth grade

level.

Freybere found that good spellers benefit from compiling their own lists

while poorer spellers made fewer errors on the dictated word test when they

used teacher provided3lists.

A programmed course in spelling developed at

Weston, M9ssachusetts

has been reported to benefit children in learning to spell,

and Noall' has found individyalized instruction beneficial to children in some

aspects ef spelling.

Allred

reported a two-year longitudinal study which com-

pared an individualized approach that was developed at the Brigham Young Univer-

sity Laboratory School and a whole-class approach which contained common elements.

Functional and formal spelling comparisons were made by grade level and by read-

ing levels within grades for students in the intermediate grades.

Findings in-

dicated the individualized approach to produce as good or superior results in all

instances.

When the same two methods were compared in formal spelling for sTud-

ents who were in the third grade during the second year of a two-year study,u

significant differences were founecin favor of the whole-class method for Students

with low reading ability.

Masoner' compared the individualized approach referred

to above with a different whole-class approach and found significant differences

in favor of the individualized approach In both formal and functional spelling

at the sixth grade level.

Mary Thelma Crosland.

A Comparison of Two Methods of Teachingpelling

on the Eighth Grade Level,

Unpublished Master's Thesis.

Eugene, Oregon:

The

University of Oregon, 1955.

2P. S. Freyberg.

"Comparison of Two Approaches to the Teaching of Spel ling"

British Journal of Educational Psychology, 34:178, June, 1964.

3Alice K. Edgerton and Ruth W. Twombly.

"Programmed Course in Spelling,"

Elementary School Journal, 62:380-386, April, 1962.

M. S. Wall and G. C. Ceravalo.

"Selected Studies in Spelling, Learning,

and Reading; Teaching Spelling," Journal of Education, 146:5, April, 1964.

-Reel A. Allred.

A Comperlson of Indiyidualized, WholeClass end combine0

Approaches In Spellinq instruction.

Unpublished doctoral dissertation.

Univer-

sity of Oregon, 1965.

6Ruel A. Allred, Louise O. Baird and Edwin A. Read.

Three Studies In

Elementary Spel.ling Instruction, Provo, Utah, Brigham Young University, 1964.

7Gery N. Masoner,

A Comparisoe of a Traditional and an individual

Method of Teaching Spel_l_ing.

Unpeblished master's field project.

Brigham Young

University, 1965.

zed

Time allotments for_spejiiiic.

A study reported by Jarvis' in 1963

indicated that children do not benefit from extended periods of study in spell-

ing.

He found that children in the intermediate grades benefited as much from

a twenty minute spelling period each day as they did from a daily forty minute

period.

The bulk of earlier findings indicates that children do not benefit

from more than severr:y-five minuIes per week, and there is evidence that this

amount of time could be reduced.

Oscar T. Jarvis.

"How Much Time for Spelling " Instructor4 73:59+0

Septeffber, 1963.

Ernest Horn.

Teaching Spelling.

What Research Says to the TeacherNo. 3.

American Education Research Association,

Washington, D. C.:

the Association,

1954. p. 7.

CHAPTER IV

CAUSES OF AND OVERCOMING SPELLING DEFICIENCY

There Is a wide range of spelling ability within any normal class.

Causes

for these differences are many and varied.

The problems of identifying reasons

for existing differences and their nature are much more taxing than those

locating differences.

The causes of some of the most striking differences and

those for which teachers and parents should look first are of a

physical nature.

Quite logically, if a child has extreme health problems, his scholastic

ability

will be seriously impaired.

"Low spelling achievement Is much more often due to

faulty training in_spelling and In critier language skills, than

It is to physical

defects, however."1

Freeupnt Causes of Spelling Deficiency

Several lists of frequently occurring causes of spelling deficiency

have

been prepared.

Two of these lAsts follow.

The first, organized by Hollingworth

and referred to by Fitzgerald,4 includes:

(1) sensory defects either of the eye

or of the ear, (2) the quality of general

Intelligence, (3) faulty auditory per-

ception, (4) faulty visual perception, (5) sheer failure to remember,

(6) lack

of knowledge of meaning, (7) other awkwardness and uncoordination,

(8) lapses,

(9) transfer of habits previously acquired, (10) individual

Idiosyncrasies, and

(II) temperamental traits.

Horn's3 list includes:

(1) poor study habits,

(2) lack of sufficient reading, (3) writing slowly or Illegibly,

(4) faulty speech

habits, (5) lack of Interest (no other factors impede learning in

spelling as much

as does a lack of interest or the presence of undesirable

attitudes), (6) home

conditions, (7) physical characteristics, (8) personality traits,

(9) spectalized

disabilities, (10) lack of good sound perception and discrimination,

(II) low

intelligence even though high intelligence does not guarantee superior

spelling

ability, and (12) poor visual memory.

Horn says that other than lack of interest,

the two most important contributions of a student's Inability to spell are

lack

of auditory imagery and lack of visual Imagery.

iJames A. Fitzgerald

The Teaching of Spelfing.

Milwaukee:

The Bruce

Publishing Company, 1951. p. 191.

James A. Fitzgerald.

The Teaching of Spelling.

Milwaukee:

The Bruce

Publ Ishing Company, 1951. p. 193.

3Ernest Horn.

"Spelling," Encyclopedia of EducationelResearch, Third

Edition (Edited by Chester W. Harris).

New York:

The MacMillan Company, 1960.

W.73,17-49.

Overcoming Spelling Deficiencies

In attempting to overcome spelling deficiencies within the classroom it is

important that efforts be made In productive areas.

Since the two most important

contributions to good spelling (other than high interest) are the development of

efficient auditory and visual imagery, efforts should be exerted In those areas.

Auditory imagery.

One of the most needed senses in being able to write words

on paper properly is the sense of hearing.

Most would suspect that this sense

would be critl,:elly needed in two respects, that of auditory acuity and auditory

discrimination.

Templini found that hard-of-hearing and even deaf children made

substantially fewer errors than do children who can hear.

These findings lead

to the conclusion that auditory acuity differences do not differentiate good and

poor spellers; however, soun

perception and discrimination are significantly

related to spelling ability.

The English language is about eighty-five percent

phonetic.3

This accounts

le fact that good auditory perception is a valuable aid to children as they

learn to spell.

If a child's auditory perception is good, this alone would prob-

ably account for more than half the English words he will spell.

Considerable

work has been done in this area, and the contributions of phonics to spelling

were discussed previously.

Yi_SPal_Imagerx.

One of the main problems in spelling is the inability of

children to spell words which are not written according to the rules of phonics.

As one investigates this problem, it appears that the major process by which a

child learns words not spelled phonetically Is by visualizing those wo0s as he

has seen them or as they may resemble similar words he has seen.

Hunt

Identifies

"the ability to lOok at a word and to produce it later," as one of the four fac-

tors, besides general intelligence, that affect the ability to spell English

words.

Because the possession of this skill is so important, educators shOuld

help children develop it.

Unfortunately, helping children develop visual imagery

is not a simple task.

However, some suggestions have been made for Its development

'Mi Idred Templin,

"A Comparison of the Spelling Achievement of Normal

and Defective Hearing Subjects,'" Journal of Educational PsychOlOaV, 39:245,

October. 1948.

Ernest-Horn.

"Spelling, Encyclopedia of_ Educational Researoh Third

Edition (Edited by Chester W. Harris).

New York:

The MacMillan Company, 1960.

1350.

00n H. Parker and Frederic R. Walker.

S.R.A. Teacher's

Labgratory Illa.

Chicago:

Science Research

4Barbara Hunt and others.

"Elements of

School Journal

53 342, March, 1963.

As-s'oZi ates

1 nc

Spelling Ability

Handbook Sp ilJno

, 1960.

n Elementary

and a few people have devised methods for its

improvement.

Durrell and Sullivan'

suggested there probably should be increased emphasis placed on

the association

of auditory and visual patterns which make up words in order

that pupils may

generalize In trying to spell words for which they do not

have clear, specific

images.

Toohy2 suggested that drawing and typing Improve chilgren's ability to

look carefully and as a result improve visual memory.

Redeker

tested a method

in which subjects were to visualize words as though they were

projected on a

large outdoor theater screen.

Students tried to stabilize the image and retain

it as long as possible.

Different methods were used to assist children In pro-

ducing and retaining the desirable image.

He found that developing imagery in

this way Is successful In improving spelling performance over

long periods of

time.

The eight study stops referred to earlier (p. 8)

also depend on, al

help develop, vlsual imagery.

The well known visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and

tactile method developed

by Grace Fernald4 helps devejop visual imagery in slow learning

and remedial

pupils.

Wheeler and Wheeler7 have suggested that teachers should:

(1) help

children build wide associations around the mental image of a

word or printed idea

vittitialvAyou'went remembered, (2) require the student

to recall visualizing the

word or idea he is trying to remember, (3) increase perceptual spans

for thought

units, phrase, sentence, and paragraph reading to locate key

words and ideas,

etc., (4) build the student's sight vocabulary, (5) help

students to develop the

ability to visualize or personalize what they read or study.

For example, teach

students to diagram or draw a picture of what they have read.

A relatively small number of methods have been used by

teachers to help

develop visual imagery.

A few methods have been researched and found

helpful,

but because of the nature of the task and differences among

children, most

'Donald D. Durrell and Helen Blair Sullivan with the cooperation of Helen

A. Murphey and Kathryn Junkins,

Ready To Read-,

Yonkers-On-Hudson, New York:

World Book_ Co., 1945.

p. 469.

-Elizabeth Toohy.

"Learning to Spell is Learning to See," Elementary

EnglIsh, 29:474, May, 1962.

3Leon D. Redeker.

"The Effect of Visual Imagery upon Spelling

Performanc- "

The Journal of Edueationalr Research, 56:370, March,

1963.

Orace Fernald.

Remedial Techniques

n Basic School SubJecte,,

New York:

McGraw Hill

1943,

5Lester R. Wheeler and Viola D,

"Dyslexophoria Symptoms and Remedial

Suggestions:" Etementary English, 32:310-11, May, 1955.

teachers are left unaided in ways and means of doing a better job.

Hern1 explains

the complexity of this problem when he says:

The use of imagery is obviously related to the practice of recall.

Imagery and imagery types are among the most baffling problems in psy-

chology.

It is futile to suggest, as is sometimes done, that teachers

should discover the image type of each child as a basis for his indivi-

dual method of study.

In the first place, it is doubtful whether stu-

dents have image types that are so exclusive or even so predominant as

this advice implies. In the second place, the trained psychologist

cannot attack this problem with confidence, and the task is quite beyond

the ability of the classroom teacher.

The authors-recognize the problems indicated above and can agree, perhaps,

that teachers are unable to identify imagery types of each individual within a

classroom, but imagery types must continue to be discovered and methods of In-

struction used that will satisfy children's needs.

To do anything less would

be to abandon one of the most critical areas of instruction for developing spell-

ing ability.

'Ernest Horn.

"Spelling'," Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Third

Edition (Edited by Chester W. Harris). New York:

The hbeMillan Company,

1960.

p. 1348.

CHAPTER V

FUTURE NEEDS IN SPELLING INSTRUCTION

Logical questions that might be expected regarding spelling are:

"What

does the future hold for spelling instruction?" and "What areas of spelling

need to be researched?"

No absolute answers can be given these questions;

however, we are reasonably sure that school districts, schools, and Individual

classroom teachers

will continue to use published spelling programs for several

years to come.

Along with these programs there will be an increase of supplemen-

tal programs within individual classrooms that are geared more to the students'

needs.

The authors feel that continued attention should be given to (I) spelling

reform, (2) application of past research, (3) application of proven study steps,

and (4) individualizing instruction.

MUch fruitful research can be conducted in

the areas of (I) individualizing instruction, (2) visual imagery, (3) programmed

learning, and (4) machine teaching, once programs have been developed to the

point that they can be researched properly.

.29111122.21EILlza

Although there are many strengths to the English language as it now exists,

there appears to be considerable need for continued reform.

Scholarly studies

should be conducted and support should be given to the valid changes which are

recommended for the simplification of English spelling.

Application of Past Research

Since the chief problem today appears to be "a more critical and universal

application of the evidence now avallable,r educators are encouraged to become

well acquainted with the research related to the teaching of spelling.

They

should exert continued efforts to insure utilization of valid findings within

each classroom.

Applicatioe of_StudY_Stees

Steps have been found that are very helpful in learning to spell words;

however, though many people memorize the steps, few actually learn to apply

them.

It is recommended that teachers both learn and teach application of study

gepS_to verds that are bein studied.

Individualized Instruction

A trend that is becoming more prevalent throughout the nation is that of

individualized spelling instruction.

This trend will probably continue but

different methods should be devised which will help meet the needs of individual

children within the classrooms.

This suggests the need for developing individual-

ized spelling methods that can be used with all children in additon to the develop-

ment of ways of determining and meeting Individual student needs within each class-

room. Once individualized methods have been developed they should be intensively

researched in order to establish their value.

VisualImageTy

Visual imagery is one of the two most important contr buttons to good spell-

ing, yet little concrete help Is available to teachers and children concerning

its development. Serious efforts should be extended in developing and researching

programs for improving visual imagery.

Future Oevelo ments

Programmed instruction and various kinds of machine teaching have made Im-

portant inroads in several instructional areas during the past decade.

Their

contributions to spelling could be valuable, but must be established through

careful research.

It is important that future spelling research be conducted

over sufficiently long periods of time for differences to reveal themselves.

Too often studies are conducted over short periods of time which often make it

impossible to determine whether or not real differenCeS. exist between methods

used.

Undoubtedly there are many unheard of innovations that will appear as in-

creasing funds and efforts are extended for their development.

People should

be encouraged to take advantage of that which presently IS available, but they

should also remain open to forthcoming methods and devices that will aid both

the teacher and the learner of spelling.

CHAPTER VI

SUMMARY

One of the more widely researched areas of the curriculum Is the subject of

spelling; however, application of research findings has not been widespread, and

improvement of teaching spelling has been slow.

Research findings have been com-

piled in this paper in the hope that they will assist individuals attempting to

improve their effectiveness in the classroom.

The speller is faced with the prob-

lem of having to spell 50 different sounds with 26 letters.

Thls task plus several

inconsistencies In written English cause serious obstacles to flawless spelling.

Several attempts at reform have been undertaken, but they have exerted little in-

fluence on present day spelling, leaving the teacher the task of teaching the

present system as best he can.

investigations in spelling instruction have shown wide differences among

students in all classes.

These differences point to needs for classroom organiza-

tion and instruction methods that will help permit teachers to meet Individual

needs within their classrooms.

Two major responsibilities teachers of spelling

have are, first, wise choice of words to be taught and, second, application of

effective teaching methods as they teach the selected words.

Selection of words

should be based on child and adult usage.

These words have been largely deter-

mined by a series of well-conducted studies.

Research in methodology has produced

information that should be used by teachers as they organize for and decide on

methods of instruction. The findings, In general

tend to support the following

conclusions:

Children learn fo spell many words in an incidental way as they

study other subjects.

This does not appear to be sufficient,

however, and it should be supplemented by regular, direct study

of words In formal and functional ways.

The column, or list, approach Is more efficient than Is the

context approach.

Study steps have been determined which are helpful to children

when they learn to spell a word.

Children use the auditory,

visual and kinesthetic senses when they apply these steps.

The test-study-test approach is superior to the study-test

approach from the middle of the third grade on and probably

even in early third and other primary grades.

Children benefit from learning only a few spelling rules.

Those from which they benefit have few or no exceptions.

Applications of phonetic principles is an aid to spelling;

but phonetic instruction should be used as an aid, not as

a replacement for direct spetling instruction.

Research In individualized spelling instruction is limited

and individualized methods vary.

However, well-executed in-

dividualized approaches to spelling appear to be at least as

efficient as are whole-class approaches.

Children do not benefit from more than seventy-five minutes of

spelling instruction per week

and there is evidence that this

amount of time can be reduced.

Causes for spelling differences are many and varied, and several lists of

frequently occurringcauses of spelling deficiency have been prepared.

Other

than lack of interest, the two most important contributionsto a student's in-

ability to spell are lack of auditory imagery and lack of visual imagery.

Because

of their potential productivity, it Is wise that efforts be extended in these

areas.

Auditory Imagery has been rather well-researched and many helpful sug-

gestions exist that aid teachers in its development.

Not nearly so much work

has been done in the area of visual imagery, but a few methods have been developed

that could prove helpful.

There appears to be much that must yet be learned

before students receive the help they need as they apply visual imagery In spell-

ing,

No one can say Just what the future holds for spelling instruction, but it

is likely that published spelling programs will continee to be used widely.

There

will be an increase, however, of supplemental programs within individual classrooms

that are designed to meet individual needs.

Continued attention should be given the areas of (I) spelling reform,

(2) application of past research, (3) application of proven study steps, and

(4) individualized instruction.

Fruitful research can be conducted in the areas

of (I) individualized instruction, (2) visual imagery, (3) programmed learning,

and (4) machine teaching.

All future spelling research should be conducted over

sufficiently long periods of time so that real differences, If they exist, can

be determined.

The authors reoommend that people take advantage of that which is

presently available, but that they remain open to forthcoming methods and devices

that will aid both the teacher and the learner of spelling.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allred, Ruel A.

A Comparison of individualized

Whole-Class and

CoMbined Ap roaches ia Spelling instruction.

Unpublished

Doctoral Dissertation,

University of Oregon, 1965.

Allred, Ruel A., Baird, Louise O., and

Read, Edwin A.

Three Studies_

in Elenentary Spelling Instruction.

Research Report. Provo, Utah,

Brigham Young University, 1964.

Boyer, Harvey Kinsey.

"Why you Can't Spell,"

Science Digest, 37:

January, 1955.

Buckingham, B. R.

Spei1ingbility, Its Measurement and

Distribution.

Teachers College Contr _utions, No. 59.

New Yor

Columbia

University, 1913.

Crosland, Mary Thelma.

A Comparison of Two Methods of

Teach'

S ellin

on the Eighth Grade Level

Unpnblis ed Haste_

Thesis.

Eugene, Oregon:

The Un versity of Oregon, 1955.

Dolch, Edward W.

Better Spelling.

Champaign

ilinois:

The Garrard

Press,

1960.

Dunne, Frank.

"Multilevel Spelling Program Spurs Each

Pupil to

Achieve Maximum for Self,"

New York State Education, 47:22,

29,

May, 1960.

Durrell, Donald D., and Sullivan, Helen

Blair with the cooperation of

Helen A. Murphey and Kathryn Junkins.

Ready to Read.

Yonkers-

On-Hudson, New York:

World Book Co., 1945.

Edgerton, Alice K., and TwoMbly, Ruth W.

"Programmed Course in

spelling,"

Elementary School Journal, 62:380-86,,April,

1962.

Eichholz, Gerald C.

"Spelling Improvement Through a

Self-Check Device,"

Elementary Sehool Jcurnall 64376, April,

1964.

Eisman, Edward.

"Individualizing Spelling," Elementary

English,

39:478-80, May, 1962.

Fernald, Grace.

Remedial Tecbni.ues in Basic S hool

Subects.

New York:

McGraw

Fitzgerald, James A. "Research in Spelling and Handwriting,"

Review of Educational Research, 22:91, April, 1952.

Fitzgerald, James A.

The Teaching of Spelling.

Milwaukee: The

Bruce Publiching Co., 1951.

Fitzgerald, James A.

"Words Misspelled Most Frequently,by Children

of the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Grade Levels in Life Outside

the School,"

Journal of Educational Research, 26:213-18,

Novemberp1932.

Foran Thomas G. The Psychology and Teaching of_Spelling. Washington,

D. C.:

Catholic Education Press, 1994.

Freyberg, P. S.

"Comparison of Two Approaches to the Teaching of

Spelling."

British --urnal of Educational Psychology, 34:178,

June, 1964.

Gates, Arthur T. "An Experimental Comparison of the Study-Test and

Test-Study Methods in Spelling."

The Journal of 'Educational

Psychology, 22:18, January, 1931.

Gilstrap, Robert.

"Development of independent Spelling Skills in the

Intermediate Grades,"

Elementary English, 39:481-3f,May

1962.

Goldberg, A. L.

"Programmed Spelling':

A Case Study,"

Audio-Visual

Instruction, 8:94-6, February, 1963.

Hahn, William P.

Comparative Efficienc

of the Contextual Methods

Unpublished Doc o

s Dissertation.

University of Pittsburgh, 1960.

Hall, Norman.

"Individualize Your Spelling Instruction,"

Elementary

English, 39:476-7, Mayt 1962.

Hanna

Paul R. and Jean S.

"Spelling Today,"

Instructor, 70:6

November, 1960,

Hanna, Paul R., and Moore, James T.,Jr.

"Spelling--From Spoken Word

to Written Symbol," Elementary_School Journal, 53:335,

February, 1953.

Hildreth, Gertrude.

Teaching Spellina.

New York:

Henry Holt and

Company, 1955.

Horn, Ernest.

A Basic Writing Vocabulary.

Iowa City:

University

of Iowa 1926.

Horn, Ernest.

Teaching Spelling,

What Research Says to the Teacher

No. 3.

American Education Research Association.

Washington,

D.C.:

The Association, 1954.

Horn, Ernest.

"Spelling,"

Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Third

Edition, (Edited by Chester W. Harris ).

New York: The MacMillan Company,

1960; pp. 1337-1354.

Horn, Thomas D.

"Research in Spelling,

Elementary English, 37:174-71

March, 1960.

Horn Thomas D.

"The Effect of the Corrected Test on Learning to Spell,"

Elementary School Journal, 47:285, January, 1947.

H _n, Thomas D., and Otto, Henry J.

Spelling Instruction:

A Curriculum

Wide Approach.

Austin, Texas

Bureau of Laboratory School,

University of Texas, 1954.

Howley, W. E., and Gallup, Jackson.

"The 'List' Versus the 'Sentence'

Method of Teaching Spelling,"

Journal of Educational Research,

5:310, April, 1922.

Hunt, Barbara and others.

"Elements of Spelling Ability,"

Elementary

SdhooI_Journal, 63:342-50, March, 1963.

Ibeling, F. W.

"Supplementary Phonics Instruction and Reading and

Spelling Ability,"

Elementary School Journal, 62:152-56,

December, 1961.

Jarvis, Oscar T.

"How Much Time For Spelling?"

Instructor, 73:59+

September, 1963.

King, Luella M. Learning and Applyin

Spelling Rules in Grades Three

to Eight. 117ire-haTYoers College, Columbia University, 1932.

Marie, Sister Evangelist.

"Study of Teaching Rules La Spelling,"

Elementa, 40:602-4, October, 1963.

Masoner, Gary N.

A Com arison of a Traditional and an Individualized

Method of Teaching Spelling.

Unpublished Master s Field Project.

Brigham Young University, 1965.

McKee, Paul.

"Teaching Spelling by Column and Context Forms,"

Journal of Educational Research, 15:254, April, 1927.

Morrison, Ida E., and Perry, Ida F.

"Spelling and Reading Relation-

ships with Incidence of Retardation and Acceleration,"

Journal

of Educational Research, 52:225, February, 1959.

Noall, M. S., and Ceravalo, G. C.

"Selected Studies in Spelling

Learning, and Reading; Teaching Spelling,"

Journal of

Education, 146:5, April, 1964.

Parker, Don H., and Walker, Frederic R.

Teacher's Handbook for

Spelling, Laboratory IIIa.

Chicago:

Science Research Associates,

Inc., 1960.

Radaker, Leon D.

"The Effect of Visual Imagery upon Spelling Per-

formance,"

The Journal of Educational,Research

56:370,

March, 1963.

Richmond, Arnie E.

"Children's Spelling Needs and the Implications

of Research,"

Journal of Experimental Education

29:19,

September, 1960.

Rinsland, Henry D.

A Basic Vocabulary of Elementary School Children.

New York; The Macmillan Company, 1945.

Sartorius, Ina Craig.

Generalization in Spelling.

New York:

Teachers

College, Columbia University, 1931.

Schoephoerster, H.

"Research into Variations of the Test-Study-Plan

of Teaching Spelling," EleTr.g_arFalish, 39:460-2, May, 1962.

Stevens, W. J.

"Obstacles to Spelling Reform,"

English Journal,

54:85-90, FebruarY, 1965.

Strayer, George D.

Report of the Survey of the Schools of Duva1

County, Florida lncludin

the C.

of Jacksonville.

New York:

ColuMbia University Press, 1927.

Templin, Mildred.

"A Comparison of the Spelling Achievement of

Normal and Defective Hearing Subjects,"

Journal of

Educational_Psychology, 39:245, October, 1948.

Thorndike, Edward L., and Lorge, Irving.

The Teacher's Word

Book of 30,000 Words

New York:

Teachers College, Columbia

University, 1944.

Toohy, Elizabeth.

"Learning to Spell is Learning to See,"

Elementary

English, 29:474, May, 1962.

Tyler, Leona E.

The Psyáhology of Human Differences_.

New Yo

Appleton-Century-Crofts Inc., 1956.

Wallin, John E. Spelling Efficiency in Relation to Age, Grade and

Sex, and the Question of Transfer.

Baltimore:

Warwick and York,

1911.

Wheeler, Lester R. and Viola D.

"Dyslexophoria Symptoms and Remedial

Suggestions,"

Elementary EngliSh

32:310-11, May, .1955.

Winch, W. H.

"Additional Researches on Learning to Spell,"

Journal

of-Educational Psycholog! 7:109-10, February, 1916.