Reprinted with permission from Reading Teacher, Vol. 66, Issue 4, December 2012, January 2013
Irene C. Fountas
•
Gay Su Pinnell
Guided
Reading
“ The compelling benefits of guided reading for students may elude us unless we attend
to the teaching decisions that assure that every student in our care climbs the ladder of success.
Let’s think about some of the areas of refinement that lie ahead in our journey of developing expertise.”
The Romance
and the Reality
COMPLIMENTARY COPY FOR IRA ATTENDEES
fountasandpinnell.com | heinemann.com | 800.225.5800
Over their influential careers, Irene Fountas and Gay Su Pinnell have
closely examined the literacy learning of thousands of students. In
1996 they revolutionized classroom teaching with their systematic
approach to small-group reading instruction as described in their
groundbreaking text, Guided Reading. Since then, their extensive
research has resulted in a framework of professional development
books, products, and services built to support children’s learning.
Fountas and Pinnell’s work is now considered the standard in the field
of literacy instruction and staff development. Teachers worldwide
recognize their deep understanding of classroom realities and their
respect for the challenges facing teachers.
Consult these Fountas & Pinnell research-based, practical resources
to effectively implement guided reading in your school/classroom
Over 20 Years
of Literacy
Leadership
Guided Reading: Good First
Teaching for All Children (1996)
Guiding Readers
and Writers(2000)
Teaching for Comprehending
and Fluency (2006)
Genre Study: Teaching with Fiction
and Nonfiction Books, K–8+ (2012)
The Fountas & Pinnell Prompting Guides (2011)
Irene C. Fountas
•
Gay Su Pinnell
www.FountasandPinnellLeveledBooks.com
MATCHING TEXTS TO READERS
FOR
EFFECTIVE TEACHING
Leveled Books, K–8: Matching Texts
to Readers for Effective Teaching (2006)
www.fountasandpinnellleveledbooks.com (2012)
www. Fo unt asa nd Pin nel lL eve le d Bo oks .com
2010
–
2012 Edition
33,000
T
HE
F
OU NTAS
&
P
INNELL
IRENE C. FOUNTAS
GAY SU PINNELL
NOW WITH O VER
TITL ES
The Fountas & Pinnell Leveled Book
List, K–8+, 2010-2012 Ed.
Fountas & Pinnell
The preeminent voices in literacy education...
T
h
e
R
o
m
a
n
c
e
.
.
.
MK-087 07/2014
continue the conversation.
Visit www.fountasandpinnell.com
for downloadable copies of
these articles and papers.
If we take a
romantic view, we could say
that once we have the book room,
small-group lessons, and leveled books and
things are running smoothly, we have arrived in
the implementation of guided reading. However,
the heart of this article is what we have learned from
many years of engaging teachers and students in
guided reading—what its true potential is,
and what it takes to realize it.
The Reading Teacher
GUIDED READING:
The Romance and the Reality
Vol. 66 Issue 4, pp. 268-284
T
h
e
R
o
m
a
n
c
e
.
.
.
According to research,
several factors make a difference in
students’ literacy learning, and each factor
is related to the selection and use of texts in
classrooms. Texts may be analyzed quantitatively, but
researchers suggest that qualitative analyses that only a
human reader can offer are also critical to understanding
text complexity. When we consider all the factors,
we realize that text complexity is far more than
a “number”, a “level”, or a “score”.
The Critical Role of Text Complexity
in Teaching Children to Read,
Fountas and Pinnell, ©2012
T
h
e
R
e
s
e
a
r
c
h
.
.
.
With an increase in
technology use among preschoolers
and school-aged children, an increase in
prekindergarten enrollments, and an increase in
full-day kindergarten programs, literacy achievement
is trending upward, expectations have risen, and
teaching is shifting. As a result of these changes, we
have made minor adjustments to the recommended
goals on the F&P Text Level Gradient.
TM
The F&P Text Level Gradient
TM
Revision
to Recommended Grade-Level Goals.
Fountas & Pinnell,
© 2012
T
h
e
R
e
a
l
i
t
y
.
.
.
Guided Reading: The Romance and the Reality
THE FOLLOWING ARTICLE was published in The Reading Teacher Vol. 66 Issue 4 Dec 2012 / Jan 2013. In
this article Fountas and Pinnell examine the growth and impact of guided reading, small group teaching for
differentiated instruction in reading that was inspired by their early publications. Guided reading has shifted the
lens in the teaching of reading to a focus on a deeper understanding of how readers build effective processing
systems over time and an examination of the critical role of texts and expert teaching in the process. In this article
Fountas and Pinnell realize that there is always more to be accomplished to ensure that every child is successfully
literate. The exciting romance with guided reading is well underway, and the reality is that continuous
professional learning is needed to ensure that this instructional approach is powerful.
THE INSIDE TRACK
The Reading Teacher Vol. 66 Issue 4 pp. 268–284 DOI:10.1002/TRTR.01123 © 2012 International Reading Association
R
T
GUIDED
READIN
G
The Romance and the Reality
Irene C. Fountas
■
Gay Su Pinnell
I
n thousands of classrooms around the world,
you will see teachers working with small groups
of children using leveled books in guided
reading lessons. The teachers are enthusiastic
about providing instruction to the students in ways
that allow them to observe their individual strengths
while working toward further learning goals. Books
are selected with specific students in mind so that
with strong teaching, readers can meet the demands
of more challenging texts over time.
Readers are actively engaged in the lesson as
they learn how to take words apart, flexibly and
efficiently, while attending to the meaning of a text.
They begin thinking about the text before reading,
attend to the meaning while reading, and are
invited to share their thinking after reading. They
deepen their understanding of a variety of texts
through thoughtful conversation. The teachers have
embraced guided reading, “an instructional context
for supporting each reader’s development of effective
strategies for processing novel texts at increasingly
challenging levels of difficulty” (Fountas & Pinnell,
1996, p. 25).
As we look back over the decades since we wrote
our first publication about guided reading, we
recognize that there has been a large shift in schools
to include guided reading as an essential element of
high-quality literacy education. With its roots in New
Zealand classrooms (Clay, 1991; Holdaway, 1979),
guided reading has shifted the lens in the teaching of
reading to a focus on a deeper understanding of how
readers build effective processing systems over time
and an examination of the critical role of texts and
expert teaching in the process (see Figure 1).
We realize that there is always more to be
accomplished to ensure that every child is
successfully literate, and that is our thesis in this
article—the exciting romance with guided reading
is well underway, and the reality is that continuous
professional learning is needed to ensure that this
instructional approach is powerful.
There is an important difference between
implementing parts of a guided reading lesson and
using guided reading to bring readers from where
they are to as far as the teaching can take them
in a given school year. If you are a teacher using
guided reading with your students, we hope that,
as you read this article, your effective practice will
be confirmed while you also find resonance with
some of the points of challenge that will expand
your professional expertise. If you are a system
leader, we hope you will find new ways to support
Irene C. Fountas is Professor in the Graduate School of Education at
Lesley University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA; e-mail ifountas@
lesley.edu.
Gay Su Pinnell is Professor Emeritus in the School of Teaching and
Learning at The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA; e-mail pinnell.1@
osu.edu.
trtr_1123.indd 268 11/17/2012 10:54:42 AM
4
GUIDED READING: THE ROMANCE AND THE REALITY
www.reading.org
269
the educators on your team as they
continue to refine and expand the
power of their professional practice.
The Romance
As an instructional practice, guided
reading is flourishing. As teachers move
to a guided reading approach, the most
frequent question they ask is: What
are the rest of the students doing? The
first agenda for the teacher is to build a
community of readers and writers in the
classroom so the students are engaged
and independent in meaningful and
productive language and literacy
opportunities while the teacher meets
with small groups (Fountas & Pinnell,
1996, 2001). The teaching decisions
within guided reading lessons become
the next horizon. Next we discuss some
of the changes that have taken place
with the infusion of guided reading.
Providing Differentiated
Instruction
Classrooms are full of a wonderful
diversity of children; differentiated
instruction is needed to reach all of
them. Many teachers have embraced
small-group teaching as a way of
effectively teaching the broad range of
learners in their classrooms. Because
readers engage with texts within their
control (with supportive teaching),
teachers have the opportunity to see
students reading books with proficient
processing every day. In addition, it is
vital to support students in taking on
more challenging texts so that they
can grow as readers, using the text
gradient as a “ladder of progress” (Clay,
1991, p. 215). Inherent in the concept of
guided reading is the idea that students
learn best when they are provided
strong instructional support to extend
themselves by reading texts that are on
the edge of their learning—not too easy
but not too hard (Vygotsky, 1978).
Using Leveled Books
One of the most important changes
related to guided reading is in the type
of books used and the way they are used.
Teachers have learned to collect short
texts at the levels they need and to use
the levels as a guide for putting the right
book in the hands of students (Fountas &
Pinnell, 1996). The term level has become
a household word; teachers use the
Figure 1 Structure of a Guided Reading Lesson
“The teaching
decisionswithin
guided reading
becomethe next
horizon.”
trtr_1123.indd 269 11/17/2012 10:54:43 AM
5
GUIDED READING: THE ROMANCE AND THE REALITY
270
The Reading Teacher Vol. 66 Issue 4 Dec 2012 / Jan 2013
T
gradient of texts to organize collections
of books for instruction. They collaborate
to create beautiful book rooms that bring
teachers across the grade levels to select
books from Fountas and Pinnell (1996,
2001, 2011) levels A through Z.
In many schools, neatly organized
boxes, shelves, or baskets make it
possible for teachers to “shop” in the
common book room. They can access
a wide variety of genres and topics and
make careful text selections. Book rooms
often have special sections for books
that are not leveled—enlarged texts (“big
books”) and tubs of books organized
by topic, author, or genre for interactive
read-aloud or book club discussions.
Publishers have responded to
teachers’ “love affair” with leveled
books by issuing thousands of new
fiction and nonfiction titles each year.
Most of these texts are short enough
to be read in one sitting so readers can
learn something new about the reading
process—strategic actions that they
can apply to the longer texts that they
read independently. The individual
titles enable teachers to choose
different books for different groups
so that they can design a student’s
literacy program and students can take
“different paths to common outcomes”
(Clay, 1998).
Conducting Benchmark
Assessment Conferences
Because they need to learn students’
instructional and independent reading
levels, teachers engage in authentic,
text-based assessment conferences
that involve students in reading real
books as a measure of how they read,
a process that 20 years ago was new
to many. Administered during the
first weeks of school, an assessment
conference with a set of carefully
leveled texts yields reliable data to guide
teaching (e.g., Fountas and Pinnell,
2012). The information gained from
systematic assessment of the way a
reader works through text provides
teachers with new understandings
of the reading process. Teachers are
learning that accurate word reading is
not the only goal; efficient, independent
self-monitoring behavior and the
ability to search for and use a variety of
sources of information in the text are
key to proficiency.
Using Running Records
toDetermine Reading Levels
A large number of teachers have
learned to use the standardized
procedure of running records (Clay,
1993) to make assessment more robust.
They can code the students’ reading
behaviors and score the records, noting
accuracy levels. From that information,
they make decisions about the level
that is appropriate for students to
read independently (independent
level) and the level at which it would
be productive to begin instruction
(instructional level). Sound assessment
changes teachers’ thinking about
the reading process and is integral to
teaching.
Using a Gradient of Text
toSelect Books
The A to Z text level gradient (Fountas
& Pinnell, 1996) has become a teacher’s
tool for selecting different texts for
different groups of children. Teachers
have learned to avoid the daily struggle
with very difficult material that will not
permit smooth, proficient processing—
no matter how expert the teaching.
Instead, they strive for text selection that
will help students read proficiently and
learn more as readers every day, always
with the goal of reading at grade level
or above. Teachers look to the gradient
as a series of goals represented as sets of
reading competencies to reach across the
school years.
Attending to Elements
ofProficient Reading: Decoding,
Comprehension, and Fluency
Assessment of students’ reading levels
and the teaching that grows out of it
go beyond accurate word reading. In
addition to the goal of effective word
solving, teachers are concerned about
comprehension of texts. Many students
“Sound assessment changes teachers’
thinkingabout the reading process and is
integralto teaching.”
“Efficient, independent
self-monitoring
behavior and the
ability to search for
and use a variety of
sources of information
in the text are key to
proficiency.”
trtr_1123.indd 270 11/17/2012 10:54:43 AM
6
GUIDED READING: THE ROMANCE AND THE REALITY
www.reading.org
R
T
271
learn to decode very well and can
read words with high accuracy. Their
thinking, though, remains superficial,
sometimes limited to retelling or
remembering details or facts.
Comprehension is assessed in
different ways, usually after reading.
Attention is increasingly focused on
comprehension as the central factor
in determining a student’s ability to
read at a level. Fluency, too, has gained
importance in teaching, especially
because it figures so strongly in effective
reading. Teachers are concerned
about students’ ability to process
texts smoothly and efficiently, and
specific instruction is dedicated to the
development of reading fluency.
Using the Elements of a Guided
Reading Lesson
Teachers have learned the parts
of the guided reading lesson—
internalized the elements, in fact,
so that they consistently provide an
introductionto a text, interact with
students brieflyas appropriate while
reading, guide the discussion, make
teaching pointsafter reading, and
engage students in targeted word work
to help themlearn more about how
words work. They have learned ways
of extending comprehension through
writing, drawing, or further discussion.
Evenstudents know the parts of the
lesson in a way that promotes efficient
work.
Building Classroom Libraries
for Choice Reading
Teachers have realized the importance
of a wide inventory of choice reading
in building students’ processing
systems. They have created beautifully
organized classroom libraries filled with
a range of fiction and nonfiction texts
that encourage students’ independent
reading. You can notice books with
their covers faced front, arranged
by author, topic, or genre, as well as
books organized by series or by special
award recognition. Students choose
books according to their interests and
spend large amounts of time engaged
with texts of their choice that do not
require teacher support for independent
reading.
The End of the Beginning
All these developments have been
accomplished with tremendous effort
and vision on the part of teachers,
administrators, and others in the
schools or district. It takes great
effort, leadership, teamwork, and
resources to turn a school or district
in the direction of rich, rigorous,
differentiated instruction. Creating
a schedule, learning about effective
management, collecting and organizing
leveled books, providing an authentic
assessment system and preparing
teachers to use it, and providing the
basic professional development to get
guided reading underway—all are
challenging tasks. Having an efficiently
running guided reading program is
an accomplishment, and educators
are justifiably proud of it. However,
as Winston Churchill said, “Now
this is not the end. It is not even the
beginning of the end. But it is, perhaps,
the end of the beginning.”
Many have experienced the romance
in the journey, and the reality is that
there will be more for everyone to
learn as we move forward. We have
summarized our general observations
of the accomplishments of decades
of guided reading and the challenges
ahead in Figure 2.
Of course, our descriptions will not
fit any one teacher or group of teachers,
but along with relevant challenges, we
hope they provoke thinking by raising
some issues related to growth and
change. The compelling benefits of
guided reading for students may elude
us unless we attend to the teaching
decisions that assure that every student
in our care climbs the ladder of success.
Let’s think about some of the areas of
refinement that lie ahead in our journey
of developing expertise.
The Reality
The deep change we strive for
begins with the why, not the how,
so our practices can grow from our
coherent theory. Our theory can also
grow from our practice as we use
the analysis of reading behaviors to
build our shared understandings and
vision. To changeour practices in an
enduring way, we need to change
our understandings. If we bring our
old thinking to a new practice, the
rationales may not fit (Wollman,
2007). Teaching practice may often be
enactedin a way that is inconsistent
with or even contrary to the underlying
theory that led to its development
(Brown & Campione, 1996; Sperling
&Freedman, 2001).
The practice of guided reading
may appear simple, yet it is not simply
“It takes great effort, leadership, teamwork,
and resources to turn a school or district in
the direction of rich, rigorous, differentiated
instruction.”
trtr_1123.indd 271 11/17/2012 10:54:43 AM
7
GUIDED READING: THE ROMANCE AND THE REALITY
272
The Reading Teacher Vol. 66 Issue 4 Dec 2012 / Jan 2013
T
another word for the small-group
instruction of the past. We address
three big areas that offer new learning
in the refinement of teaching in guided
reading lessons, bringing together the
romance in guided reading with the
reality of its depth. These areas can be
summarized as readers and the reading
process, texts, and teaching. As we
discuss each area, notice the aspects that
reflect your growing edge as a reading
teacher.
A Shared Understanding
oftheProcess of Reading
Some teachers have learned to be
satisfied with their students simply
reading accurately. This practice has
led to pushing students up levels
without evidence of their control of
the competencies that enable them
to think within, beyond, and about
texts at each level. The goal of the
guided reading lesson for students is
not just to read “this book” or even
to understand a single text. The goal
of guided reading is to help students
build their reading power—to build
a network of strategic actions for
processing texts. We have described
12 systems of strategic activities,
all operating simultaneously in the
reader’s head (see Figure 3).
Thinking Within the Text. The first
six systems we categorize as “thinking
within the text.” These activities are
solving words, monitoring and correcting,
searching for and using information,
summarizing information in a way that
the reader can remember it, adjusting
reading for different purposes and genres,
and sustaining fluency. All these actions
work together as the reader moves
through the text. It is essential to
solve words; after all, reading must
be accurate. It is just as important to
engage the other systems. Readers
constantly search for information in
the print, in the pictures; they know
when they are making errors, and if
necessary, they correct them. They
reconstruct the important information
and use it to interpret the next part
of the text. Kaye’s (2006) study of the
word solving of proficient second-grade
readers showed the following:
When students are efficiently
processing text, they flexibly draw
from a vast response repertoire. They
use their expertise in language and
their knowledge of print, stories,
and the world to problem solve as
they read. Supported by mostly
correct responding, readers are
able to momentarily direct their
attention to thedetail of letters
and sounds as needed. When they
needto problem solve words in
greater detail, second graders can
draw upontheir orthographic and
phonological knowledge with incredible
flexibilityand efficiency, usually using
the larger subword units. Then they are
free to get back to the message of the
text. (p. 71)
Figure 2 Decades of Guided Reading
trtr_1123.indd 272 11/17/2012 10:54:43 AM
8
GUIDED READING: THE ROMANCE AND THE REALITY
www.reading.org
273
Thinking Beyond the Text. The next
four systems call for “thinking beyond
the text.” They are inferring, synthesizing,
making connections, and predicting.
Reading is a transaction between the text
and the reader (Rosenblatt, 1994); that is,
the reader constructs unique meanings
through integrating background
knowledge, emotions, attitudes, and
expectations with the meaning the
writer expresses.
When several of us read the same
text, we do try to understand the
writer’s message and share much
with each other. At the same time,
each reader’s interpretation is unique.
Readers infer what the writer means but
does not say; they make connections
with their personal experiences
and other texts. They bring content
knowledge to the text and synthesize
new ideas. They make predictions
before, during, and after reading.
Thinking About the Text. The last two
systems represent how the proficient
reader analyzes and critiques the text.
Readers hold up the text as an object
that they can look back at and analyze.
They notice aspects of the writer’s
craft—appreciate language, literary
devices such as use of symbolism, how
characters and their development are
revealed, beginnings and endings.
They critique texts: Are they accurate?
Objective? Interesting? Well written?
A Complex Theory. Reading is
far more than looking at individual
wordsand saying them. Readers
are in the fortunate position of
encounteringlanguage that is created
mostly by unknown individuals
whomay be distant in space and
time. The systems of strategic actions
take place simultaneously in the
brain duringthe complex process of
reading. The proficient reader develops
a networklike a computer, only
thousandsof times faster and more
complex. The brain learns, making new
connections constantly and expanding
the system. Clay (1991) described the
process:
This reading work clocks up more
experience for the network with each of
the features of print attended to. It allows
the partially familiar to become familiar
and the new to become familiar in an ever-
changing sequence. Meaning is checked
against letter sequence or vice versa,
phonological recoding is checked against
speech vocabulary, new meanings are
checked against the grammatical and
semantic contexts of the sentence and
Figure 3 A Network of Processing Systems for Reading
“The reader constructs unique meanings through
integrating background knowledge, emotions,
attitudes, and expectations with the meaning the
writer expresses.”
trtr_1123.indd 273 11/17/2012 10:54:45 AM
9
GUIDED READING: THE ROMANCE AND THE REALITY
274
The Reading Teacher Vol. 66 Issue 4 Dec 2012 / Jan 2013
T
the story, and so on. Because one route
to a response confirms an approach
from another direction this may allow
the network to become a more effective
network. However the generative
process only operates when the reading
is ‘good,’ that is, successful enough to
free attention to pick up new information
at the point of problem-solving. An
interlocking network of appropriate
strategies which include monitoring and
evaluation of consonance or dissonance
among messages that ought to agree is
central to this model of a system which
extends itself. (pp. 328–329)
The amazing thing is that all of
this complex cognitive activity is
accomplished simultaneously and at
lightning speed; proficient readers are
largely unconscious of it (Clay, 1991).
We are writing here about the efficient,
effective, fluent processing that allows
readers to keep the greater part of
attention on the meaning of the text.
Teachers cannot see into the brains
of effective readers, and the process
breaks down the moment you make
readers try to describe their processing
(much like watching your fingers while
playing the piano).
However, skillful teachers have a
sharp observing eye, with the ability to
notice and understand the evidence of
processing shown in the behaviors of
students—how they read and what they
reveal through conversation about what
they read. Understanding the reading
behaviors that are evident in a student
who is processing well helps the teacher
detect inefficient or ineffective reading
and take steps to offer support. You can
also notice the way proficient readers
change over time; sometimes progress is
detectable every day!
When students engage in smooth,
efficient processing of text with deep
understanding, they can steadily
increase their abilities. That means
much more than just moving up levels;
the goal is to build effective processing
systems. It isn’t easy, but guided reading
offers that opportunity.
Fluent Processing: An Essential
Element of Effective Reading. Deep
comprehension is not synonymous
with speed, nor, surprisingly, is reading
fluency. Some in the educational
community seem to have become
obsessed with speed. However,
measuring fluency only as words
per minute is a simplistic view and a
procedure that may do harm. In our
work, we emphasize pausing, phrasing,
word stress, and intonation far more
than rate.
Rasinski and Hamman (2010)
reviewed the research and found that
the norms for reading speed have
gone up, but these increases have
not been matched by improvement
in comprehension. They believe that
the way reading fluency has been
measured has influenced practice and
in some places had a devastating effect
on reading itself. We now see students
who read rapidly and robotically, often
skipping without problem solving every
word not instantly recognized. The
result is a loss of comprehension and
confusion for the student about what it
means to read.
We recognize that proficient readers
do move along at a satisfying rate,
but fluency can’t be measured by rate
alone—certainly not by measuring
the rate of reading word lists. Reading
fluency means the efficient and effective
processing of meaningful, connected,
communicative language. According
to Newkirk (2011), “the fluent reader is
demonstrating comprehension, taking
cues from the text, and taking pleasure
in finding the right tempo for the text”
(p. 1). He hastens to explain that he does
not mean the laborious, word-to-word
struggle to read something that is clearly
too hard for the reader. And he says
there is no ideal speed. The speed has to
do with the relationship we have with
what we read. He describes his own
entry to a book:
I enter a book carefully, trying to get a
feel for this writer/narrator/teller that I
will spend time with. I hear the language,
feel the movement of sentences, pay
attention to punctuation, sense pauses,
feel the writer’s energy (or lack of it),
construct the voice and temperament of
the writer. (p. 1)
Oral Language: An Essential Element
of Effective Reading. Reading is
language and language is thinking. One
of the purposes of guided reading is to
bring the control of oral language to the
processing of a text. Of course, oral and
written language have important and
subtle differences, but oral language is
the most powerful system the young
child brings to initial experiences with
the reading process. As readers grow
more proficient, language still plays
a strong role. The most obvious is the
role of the oral vocabulary, which is
extremely important. However, teachers
also consider the reader’s grasp of
sentence complexity and the speaker’s
understanding of metaphor, simile,
“When students engage in smooth, efficient
processing of text with deep understanding, they
can steadily increase their abilities.”
trtr_1123.indd 274 11/17/2012 10:54:46 AM
10
GUIDED READING: THE ROMANCE AND THE REALITY
www.reading.org
275
expression, idioms, and other nuances
of speech.
Students’ language development is
important, and there is no better way to
expand it than to engage them in lively
conversation (not just questions and
answers) about any exciting subject as
well as about books. When students talk
about their reading, they tend to use the
language of texts, which is usually more
complex than their own. Guided reading
includes such discussion every day,
and teachers are working toward richer
conversations that will extend students’
language far beyond a dry recounting of
the story.
Using Systematic Assessment
The assessment system needs to
provide the behavioral evidence
that isconsistent with a shared
understanding of the reading
process.Itshould link directly to our
teaching. Good assessment is the
foundation for effective teaching.
Assessment in its simplest form
means gaining information about the
learners you will teach. The “noticing”
teacher tunes in to the individual
reader and observes how the reader
works througha text and thinks about
how the reading sounds. For some
teachers, assessment stops at finding
levels because they have not had
the opportunity to develop further
understandings of the value of specific
behaviors to inform teaching. The
assessment may be used to report levels,
and then the data are filed without the
benefit of their richness.
Using Assessment to Group and
Regroup Readers. In a comprehensive
approach to literacy education, small-
group teaching is needed for the
carefulobservation and specific
teachingof individuals that it allows,
as well as for efficiency in teaching
and the social learning that benefits
each student. For some teachers,
guided reading groups may have
become the fixed-ability groups of
the past. Teachersneed to become
expert in forming and reforming
groups to allowfor the differences in
learning thatare evident in students.
Some students may not develop the
same reading behaviors in the same
order andat the same pace as others.
The key to effective teaching is your
ability to make different decisions for
different students at different points
in time, honoring the complexity of
development.
A key concept related to guided
reading is that grouping is dynamic—
temporary, not static. Teachers
group and regroup students as they
gain behavioral evidence of their
progress. In our experience, the reason
groups don’t change enough is that
no systematic ongoing assessment
system is in place for teachers to use
to check their informal observations
with what students demonstrate when
asked to read a text without teacher
support. When teachers use ongoing
running records in a systematic way
(more frequently with lower achieving
students and less frequently with higher
achieving students), the data are used to
make ongoing adjustments to groups.
Often the only assessment in place is
beginning, middle, and end of year
assessment, and nothing systematic
happens in between.
Often teachers have a history of
using prescriptive programs in which
students are expected to pass through
the same books or materials so groups
may remain the same for a long period
of time. In guided reading, text selection
does not follow a fixed sequence that
students must progress through; there
are no workbooks or worksheets that
must be completed before moving
forward. Teachers are expected to select
different books for the groups and to
move students more quickly or slowly
forward as informed by their expert
analysis.
Using Assessment to Guide Teaching
All Year. A system for interval
assessment such as a benchmark
assessment conference using running
records even two or three times a
year isnot enough. The benchmark
information is old news in a few
weeks. To make effective decisions
for readers, you also need an efficient
system for ongoing assessment using
running records. A running record
usingyesterday’s instructional
book takes the place of benchmark
assessmentwith “unseen text.” The
running record becomes a useful tool
for assessing the effects of yesterday’s
teaching on the reader.
“Good assessment
is the foundation for
effective teaching.”
“Teachers need to become expert in forming and
reforming groups to allow for the differences in
learning that are evident in students.”
trtr_1123.indd 275 11/17/2012 10:54:46 AM
11
GUIDED READING: THE ROMANCE AND THE REALITY
276
The Reading Teacher Vol. 66 Issue 4 Dec 2012 / Jan 2013
T
Your professional development may
have stopped with coding and scoring
reading behaviors; you may not have
had the opportunity to become expert
at their analysis and use in informing
your teaching. When you go beyond
coding and scoring, you make a big
shift in the way you think about your
teaching decisions in the lesson. Rather
than teaching the level or the book, you
notice and are able to use the behavioral
evidence to guide your next teaching
moves. We see this kind of teaching as
the “precision teaching” that makes
guided reading lessons powerful.
Reading teachers are like scientists
gathering precise data and using it to
form hypotheses. For example, you
can use running records or benchmark
assessments to:
■
Assess the accuracy level
■
Assess fluency
■
Observe and code oral reading
behaviors systematically to note
what students do at difficulty or at
error and learn how students are
solving problems with text
■
Engage the student in conversation
to assess comprehension at several
levels
From Assessment to Teaching: Using
a Continuum of Literacy Learning.
When you understand the complexity
of the reading process, you are able
to teach toward the competencies of
proficient readers. A precise description
of the behaviors of proficient readers
from levels A to Z constitutes the
curriculum for teaching reading. A
level is not a score; it stands for a set of
behaviors and understandings that you
can observe for evidence of, teach for,
and reinforce at every level.
Think about all the behaviors that
are observable in readers who process
a text well. Of course the behaviors
of effective processing at level A will
look very different from those at level
C or M or S. To support your ability to
teach for changes in reading behaviors
over time, we developed The
Continuum of Literacy Learning Grades
PreK-8: A Guide to Teaching (Pinnell
& Fountas, 2011). The Continuum
provides a detailed description of the
behaviors of proficient readers that are
evident in oral reading, in talk, and in
writing about reading so that you can
teach for change in reading behaviors
over time.
Understanding Leveled Texts
and Their Demands on Readers
The Fountas & Pinnell A–Z text gradient
and high-quality leveled books are
powerful tools in the teaching of reading
(see Figure 4). The appropriate text
allows the reader to expand her reading
powers. To become proficient readers,
students must experience successful
processing daily. Not only should they
be able to read books independently,
building interest, stamina, and fluency;
they also need to tackle harder books
that provide the opportunity to grow
more skillful as a reader.
Successful processing of the more
challenging text is made possible by an
expert teacher’s careful text selection
and strong teaching. If the book is too
difficult, then the processing will not be
proficient, no matter how much teaching
you do.
Consider the situation when
everystudent in the room (and
sometimesin the grade level) is
readingthe same book. Most of the
readers will not be encountering text
“Successful processing of the more challenging
text is made possible by an expert teacher’s
careful text selection and strong teaching.”
Figure 4 F&P Text Level Gradient
trtr_1123.indd 276 11/17/2012 10:54:46 AM
12
GUIDED READING: THE ROMANCE AND THE REALITY
www.reading.org
277
that,with teacher support, causes
them to expand their reading powers.
For some,the books are too easy;
for many,much too hard. There
are many reasons for whole-group
instruction, and we recommend that
it take place every day in interactive
read-aloud or reading minilessons.
However,ensuring that all students
develop an effectivereading process
requires differentiated instruction. One-
size-fits-all or single-text teaching does
not meet the varied needs of diverse
students.
Many teachers use levels to select
the books for students, but that
raises several more questions. First,
not all leveled books are equal. Just
because a book has a level does not
mean it is a high-quality selection.
Some leveledbooks are formulaic
or not accurately leveled. Teachers
need to look carefully at books in
the purchasing process to assure
they are well written and illustrated.
They also need to check to be sure
that the Fountas and Pinnell level
has been accurately determined. It
will be frustrating to select a book
and beginto use it with a group,
only to find it is too easy or too
difficult to support learning. Second,
when teachers understand the 10
text characteristics that are used to
determine the level,they understand
its demands on the reader and can
useit in a more powerful way in
teaching.
Understanding a text is far more
than noticing hard words and coming
up with information or a “main idea.”
Skilled teachers of guided reading
understand how a text requires a reader
to think—the demands that every text
makes on the reader. We consider an
understanding of text characteristics
an extremely important area of teacher
expertise.
Teachers do more than apply
mechanical formulas by looking at
sentence and word length (although
those are important); we recommend
an analysis that takes into account
text complexity. We have described 10
characteristics of text difficulty (see
Figure 5).
Teachers consider the
characteristics of genres and special
forms; some genres and forms are
more difficult than others, with
simpler and more complex texts
of every type. Teachers notice and
understand the text structure—
the way it is organized—as well
as underlying structures such as
compare and contrast. They assess
the level of content (what background
knowledge will be required) and the
themes and ideas. Highly abstract
themes and ideas make a text more
challenging. Many texts have complex
language and literary features such as
elaborate plots, hard-to-read dialogue,
or figurative language that make the
Figure 5 Ten Characteristics Related to Text Difficulty
trtr_1123.indd 277 11/17/2012 10:54:47 AM
13
GUIDED READING: THE ROMANCE AND THE REALITY
278
The Reading Teacher Vol. 66 Issue 4 Dec 2012 / Jan 2013
T
texts more interesting and at the same
time more challenging.
Sentence complexity, too, is a
factor, one that is usually measured
by mechanical readability formulas.
Works with many embedded clauses
and long sentences are harder. Teachers
also consider the number of long,
multisyllabic, or hard to decode words
in a text and the complexity of the
vocabulary. Illustrations in fiction can
add meaning or mood to the text, and
graphics in nonfiction offer additional
complex information. Book and print
features play a role as well. The size of
print, layout, punctuation, and other
text features such as charts, diagrams or
sidebars—all go into the analysis of text
difficulty.
Using these characteristics, we
created the A to Z text gradient
to give teachers a useful tool for
guidedreading instruction and a
picture of student progress over time
(see Figure 6). Notice how Ronald has
progressed from kindergarten through
grade 8 in a high-quality instructional
program.
The gradient offers guidance in
selecting texts, but it’s important to
remember that levels are not written
in stone. Background experience
and unique characteristics of readers
figure into their processing of texts so
that most students read along a fairly
narrow range of levels, depending on
interest and whether they are working
independently or with strong support.
We would not situate a reader at a
single level and insist that all reading
be there.
The ability to analyzetexts
represents important teacher
knowledge that takes time to develop.
Many teachers of guidedreading have
spent a great dealof time analyzing
and comparingtexts using the 10
characteristics and have become
“quick” analyzers of texts. They
match up their understandings with
their knowledge of the students
in the group. When they teach a
guided reading lesson, they can plan
quickly what they need to say in
the introduction and anticipate key
understandings to talk about in the
discussion. When you understand
the inner workings of a text, you can
introduce it well and guide a powerful
discussion.
Teaching for a Processing
System: The Role of Facilitative
Talk in Expanding Reading
Power
At first, guided reading may be
perceived only as a process of
convening small groups, using
Figure 6 Record of Book-Reading Progress
trtr_1123.indd 278 11/17/2012 10:54:48 AM
14
GUIDED READING: THE ROMANCE AND THE REALITY
www.reading.org
279
leveled books, and following a lesson
framework. Often, teachers use the
small-group format, the steps of the
lesson, and a set of leveled books but
bring their old theory to this new
practice. Professional development
support does not go far enough to
enable them to do powerful teaching
beyond these initial steps. Guided
reading is much more. It is an
instructional context within which the
precise teaching moves and language
choices are related to the behaviors
observed, moment by moment, and
which guide the reader to engage in
problem solving that expands his or
her reading power.
The skilled teacher of guidedread-
ing makes decisions throughout the
lesson that are responsive to the learn-
ers. Each element supports readers in
a different way, with the goal of help-
ing them think and act for themselves.
You expertly shape the introduction
to support readers’ ability to success-
fully process the text. The introduction
sets the stage for effective reading of
the text. During reading, you can use
language to demonstrate, prompt,
and support the reader in efficient
processing.
Your language is also a critical
areaof your expertise. Through
preciselanguage, you facilitate
readers’problem-solving power
and their ability to initiate effective
actionsas they become self-
regulatingreaders (Clay, 2001).
Use language in specific ways
to demonstrate, show or teach,
prompt for, and reinforce strategic
actions. With brief yet powerful
facilitativelanguage, you can
scaffold students during the time you
sample oral reading. Short, focused
interactions with individuals allow
readers to learn how to problem solve
for themselves (Fountas & Pinnell,
2009). Some examples of precise
language that helps students build a
processing system are presented in
Figure 7.
As your students discuss the text,
you can use facilitative language
that promotes dialogue. Get readers
thinking and using what they know.
Through the discussion, they expand
comprehension. Your teaching points
address the precise needs of the learners
you teach. They involve responsive
teaching based on your observation
of the readers and the opportunities
offered by the text. Notice the examples
of specific language to support analytic
thinking in the discussion of a text (see
Figure 8).
“The ability to analyze texts represents
importantteacher knowledge that takes
timetodevelop.”
Figure 7 Facilitative Talk
trtr_1123.indd 279 11/17/2012 10:54:49 AM
FACILITATIVE TALK
Teach Prompt Reinforce
SEARCHING
FOR AND USING
MEANING
INFORMATION
You can try that again
and think what would
make sense.
Try that again and
think what would
make sense.
You tried that
again and now it
makes sense.
SEARCHING FOR
AND USING
VISUAL
INFORMATION
You can look for a
part you know. (Use
finger to cover last
part.)
Look for a part you
know.
You looked for
a part
you knew and it
helped you.
FLUENCY
You need to put your
words together so it
sounds like talking.
Listen to how I read
this.
Put your words
together so it
sounds like talking.
You put your
words together
and it sounds like
talking.
SELF-
MONITORING
It has to make sense
and look right, too.
Let me show you how
to check.
Does that make
sense and look
right?
That makes sense
and looks right.
15
GUIDED READING: THE ROMANCE AND THE REALITY
280
The Reading Teacher Vol. 66 Issue 4 Dec 2012 / Jan 2013
T
Through word work, you help
readers develop flexibility with
wordsand word parts, noticing
syllables, working with letters and
sounds, andunderstanding the
morphemic structure of words. The
option to extend the understanding
of a text involves more than just
an assignment. Many teachers
of guidedreading have students
use theirreaders’ notebooks to
write abouttheir reading in a way
that supports and expands their
comprehension.
Using Self-Reflection to Grow
in Teaching Guided Reading
High-quality, highly effective
implementation of guided reading
involves a process of self-reflection.
You are very fortunate if you have a
colleague with whom you can talk
analytically about lessons. Each
time you work with a small group
of students, you can learn a little
more and hone your teaching skills.
(We believe that students who have
teachers who also are learning
are equally fortunate. That makes
the whole experience a lot more
exciting!)In Figures 9 and 10, we offer
some guidance for you to pause and
ponder.Ask yourself some critical
questions about the guided reading
lesson. You’ll find that you become
more aware of the skillful teaching
moves you have made, as well as
Figure 8 Examples of Language to Support Analytic Thinking About Text
Note. From Fountas & Pinnell (2012).
Figure 9 Pause and Ponder: Teaching
the Reader
Figure 10 Pause and Ponder: Results
of the Lesson
trtr_1123.indd 280 11/17/2012 10:54:50 AM
16
GUIDED READING: THE ROMANCE AND THE REALITY
www.reading.org
281
the thought that “I might have…” or
“tomorrow I will…”. Reflective teaching
is rewarding because you are learning
from teaching.
Providing Variety and
Choice in the Reading
Program
Educators have sometimes made
the mistake of thinking that guided
reading is the reading program or
that all of the books students read
should be leveled. We have argued
against the overuse of levels. We
have neverrecommended that the
school library or classroom libraries
be leveledor that levels be reported to
parents.
We want students to learn to select
books the way experienced readers
do—according to their own interests,
by trying a bit of the book, by noticing
the topic or the author. Teachers can
help students learn how to choose
books that are right for them to read
independently. This is a life skill. The
text gradient and leveled books are
a teacher’s tool, not a child’s label,
and should be deemphasized in the
classroom. Levels are for books, not
children.
Guided reading provides the
small-group instruction that allows
for a closer tailoring to individual
strengths and needs; however, students
also need age-appropriate, grade-
appropriate texts. Therefore, guided
reading must be only one component
of a comprehensive, high-quality
literacy effort that includes interactive
read-aloud, literature discussion in
small groups, readers’ workshop with
whole-group minilessons, independent
reading and individual conferences,
and the use of mentor texts for writing
workshop. Students learn in whole
group, small group, and individual
settings.
Guided reading instruction takes
place within a larger framework that
brings coherence to the students’
school experience. It does not stand
alone. The expert teacher is able to
draw students’ attention to important
concepts across instructional contexts.
For example, a teacher may help
students attend to how readers need to
think about not only what the writer
says (states), but also what he or she
means (implies) in contexts such as
these:
■
Guided reading (small group,
leveled books)
■
Literature discussion (small-group
book clubs or whole class, not
leveled books)
■
Interactive read-aloud (whole class,
not leveled books)
■
Independent reading with
conferences (individual, not leveled
books, self-selected)
■
Reading minilessons (whole class,
not leveled books)
In guided reading and
interactiveread-aloud, the teacher
selects the book; in other contexts,
students havechoice. They are taught
ways to assess a text to determine
whether it will be interesting and
readable. Whole-class minilessons
often involve using a whole range
of books as mentor texts. The
entire literacy/language program
representsasmooth, coherent whole
in which students engage a variety
of strategic actions to process a wide
variety of texts.
Growth Over Time
The lesson of guided reading
development over the years is that
it cannot be described as a series
of mechanical steps or “parts” of a
lesson. The lesson structure is only
the beginning of providing effective
small-group instruction for students of
all ages. Powerful teaching within the
lesson requires much more.
It is interesting to reflect on what
aspects of guided reading tend to be
easiest or hardest for teachers to take
on. Bryk et al. (2007) found empirical
evidence for teacher development of
some of the complexities of guided
reading. He and his colleagues
constructed an instrument called
the Developing Language and
Literacy Teaching rubrics and tested
it for reliability. A series of controlled,
systematic observations indicated that
the instrument distinguished between
“novices” and “experts” in several
contexts for literacy teaching.
A very helpful result of the study
was that the analysis of items revealed
a “scale” that provided evidence of
the dimensions of instruction from
less to more frequently observed
(item difficulty), and this item map
was consistent across teachers. The
researchers were able to demonstrate
increasing levels of sophistication.
In Figure 11, you see the chart for
“The lesson structure is only the beginning of
providing effective small-group instruction...
Powerful teaching within the lesson requires
much more.”
trtr_1123.indd 281 11/17/2012 10:54:51 AM
17
GUIDED READING: THE ROMANCE AND THE REALITY
282
The Reading Teacher Vol. 66 Issue 4 Dec 2012 / Jan 2013
T
development of levels of expertise in
guided reading.
On the horizontal axis, you see
dimensions of instruction, and on the
vertical axis, you see the level of item
difficulty, meaning that it seemed to
take longer for teachers to develop this
area of expertise in guided reading, and
these items tended to separate novices
from more expert teachers. It seems that
early on, teachers take on tasks such as
book selection (aided by the levels and
the bookroom) and parts of the lesson
such as text introduction. We would
argue that even these components
require complex thinking and can be
improved once acquired. Effective
prompting for use of strategies also
raises the sophistication, and, finally,
acting “in the moment” to engage
students in a rich discussion and make
teaching points based on observation
are the most challenging on this scale.
In addition, when we consider that this
study was completed before a great deal
of new research on comprehension was
accomplished, the need for ongoing
professional development is compelling
indeed.
We realize that achieving a high
level of expertise in guided reading is
not easy. It takes time and usually the
support of a coach or staff developer.
Research indicates that it is fairly easy
to take on the basic structure of guided
reading, for example, the steps of
the lesson. However, that is only the
beginning of teacher expertise. Teaching
for strategic actions and “on your feet”
interaction with students is much more
challenging.
You bring an enormous and complex
body of understandings to the teaching
of guided reading. Yet, with appropriate
high-quality professional development
and ongoing support, it is possible for
every teacher to implement guided
reading more powerfully in every
classroom. Skilled teachers of guided
reading have the pleasure of seeing
shifts in their students’ reading ability
every week—sometimes every day.
Through guided reading, students
can learn to deeply comprehend texts.
And perhaps most importantly, they
experience the pleasure of reading well
every day.
To make the guided reading
journey successful, we call for
resources in the form of excellently
written, attractive, and engaging
leveled books and for access to high-
quality professional development
for teachers. Our own experience
Figure 11 Development of Expertise in Guided Reading
Note. From Bryk et al (2007).
“Teaching for strategic actions and
‘onyourfeet’interaction with students is
muchmore challenging.”
trtr_1123.indd 282 11/17/2012 10:54:51 AM
18
GUIDED READING: THE ROMANCE AND THE REALITY
www.reading.org
283
indicates that one-to-one literacy
coaching with a highly trainedand
knowledgeable professionaldeveloper
is very effective.An important
federallyfundedstudy supports
theuseof coaches (Biancarosa,
Hough,Dexter & Bryk, 2008; see
www.literacycollaborative.org for a
summary). Teachers had professional
development and coaching over four
years to implement all elements of a
literacy framework. The research team
gathered data on 8,500 children who
had passed through grades K–3 in 17
schools; they collected fall and spring
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early
Literacy Skills (DIBELS) and Terra Nova
data from these students as well as
observational data on 240 teachers. The
primary findings showed that:
■
The average rate of student
learningincreased by 16% in the
first implementation year, 28%
in the second year, and 32% in
the third year—very substantial
increases.
■
Teacher expertise increased
substantially, and the rate of
improvement coincided with
the extent of coaching teachers
received.
■
Professional communication
among teachers in the schools
increased over the three-year
implementation, and the literacy
coordinator (coach) became
more central in the schools’
communication networks.
Guided reading was only one
component of the literacy framework
implemented in the schools researched
in the preceding study, but it was
an important one. The importance
of the literacy coach, who conducts
professional development sessions,
models good teaching, and most
importantly observes teachers in
the classroom and dialogues with
them to collegially mentor their
growth inunderstanding and
implementation of effective teaching,
appeared to be paramount in the
process. And even these schools
were only at thebeginning of the
journey. However, the study shows
that achieving substantial schoolwide
growth ispossible if a community of
educatorsare willing to undertake the
journey.
The Beginning
In this article, we have described
somewonderful changes that have
brought teaching closer to students. If
we take a romantic view, we could say
that once we have the book room, small-
group lessons, and leveled booksand
things are running smoothly, we have
arrived in the implementationof guided
reading. However, the heart of this
article is what we have learned from
many years of engaging teachers and
students in guided reading—what its
true potential is, and what it takes to
realize it. That’s the reality.
In the case of guided reading,
facingreality reaps endlessly positive
rewards. Facing reality means that
thereis more exciting learning to do.
Teaching and managing educational
systems is energizing when we are
working collaboratively toward new
goals. The accomplishments we have
already made simply give way to new
insights.
You may have made a very
goodbeginning in using guided
reading to develop your students’
reading power, and that is a
satisfying accomplishment.It is
alsoadevelopmentthat enables
youtohave important insights that
you can build upon. As you look
at your educationalprogram, you
may benoticing some of the issues
we havedescribed here. That can
put youonthe path to work toward
evenhigher goals on behalf of your
students. We hope youare excited
toknow that morechallenges
lie aheadin your growing
professionalexpertise and thatthere
aretools to help you meet those
challenges.
REFERENCES
Biancarosa, G., Hough, H., Dexter, E., & Bryk,
A. (2008, March). Assessing the value-added
effects of coaching on student learning. Paper
presented at the meeting of the National
Reading Conference, Orlando, FL.
Brown, A.L., & Campione, J.C. (1996).
Psychological theory and the design of
innovative learning environments: On
procedures, principles and systems. In
Glaser, R. (Ed.), Innovations in learning: New
environments for education (pp. 289–325).
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bryk, A., Kerbow, D., Pinnell, G.S.,
Rodgers,E.,Hung, C., Scharer, P.L.,
et al. (2007). Measuring change in the
instructionalpractices of literacy teachers.
Unpublished manuscript.
Clay, M.M. (1991). Becoming literate: The
construction of inner control. Auckland, New
Zealand: Heinemann.
Clay, M.M. (1993). An Observation Survey of
Early Literacy Achievement. Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.
Clay, M.M. (1998). Different paths to common
outcomes. Portland, ME: Stenhouse.
Clay, M.M. (2001). Change over time in children’s
literacy development. Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.
“Achieving substantial schoolwide growth is
possible if a community of educators are willing
to undertake the journey.”
trtr_1123.indd 283 11/17/2012 10:54:52 AM
19
GUIDED READING: THE ROMANCE AND THE REALITY
284
The Reading Teacher Vol. 66 Issue 4 Dec 2012 / Jan 2013
T
Fountas, I.C., & Pinnell, G.S. (1996). Guided
reading: Good first teaching for all children.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Fountas, I.C., & Pinnell, G.S. (2001). Guiding
readers and writers: Teaching comprehension,
genre, and content literacy. Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.
Fountas, I.C., & Pinnell, G.S. (2009). Prompting
guide part 1: For oral reading and early writing.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Fountas, I.C., & Pinnell, G.S. (2011). Fountas
andPinnell benchmark assessment systems
1 and 2 (2nd ed.). Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.
Fountas, I.C., & Pinnell, G.S. (2012). Prompting
guide part 2: For comprehension. Portsmouth,
NH: Heinemann.
Holdaway, D. (1979). Foundations of literacy.
Sydney, Australia: Ashton Scholastic.
Kaye, E.L. (2006). Second graders’ reading
behaviors: A study of variety, complexity, and
change. Literacy Teaching and Learning, 10(2),
51–75.
Newkirk, T. (2011). The art of slow reading.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Pinnell, G.S., & Fountas, I.C. (2011). The
continuum of literacy learning, grades preK-8: A
guide to teaching (2nd ed.). Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.
Rasinski, T., & Hamman, P. (2010). Fluency:
Why it is “Not Hot.” Reading Today, 28, 26.
Rosenblatt, L.M. (1994). The transactional
theory of reading and writing. In R.B.
Ruddell, M.R. Ruddell, & H. Singer
(Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of
reading (4th ed., pp. 1057–1092). Newark,
DE: International Reading Association.
doi:10.1598/0872075028.48
Sperling, M., & Freedman, S.W. (2001). Research
on writing. In Richardson, V. (Ed.), Handbook
of research on teaching (4th ed., pp. 370–389).
Washington, DC: American Educational
Research Association.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind and society:
The development of higher psychological
processes.Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Wollman, J.E. (2007). “Are we on the same
bookand page?” The value of shared
theoryand vision. Language Arts, 84(5),
410–418.
trtr_1123.indd 284 11/17/2012 10:54:52 AM
20