1
P
ROFESSIONAL
W
RITING
T
HE
C
OMMAND AND
G
ENERAL
S
TAFF
C
OLLEGE
W
RITING
G
UIDE
Student Text 22-2
July 2023
2
This page intentionally blank.
iii
PROFESSIONAL WRITING:
T
HE COMMAND AND GENERAL STAFF COLLEGE WRITING GUIDE
STUDENT TEXT 22-2
───────────────
Project Editor
Trent J. Lythgoe
Contributors
Allan S. Boyce
Sean N. Kalic
Richard A. McConnell
Mary L. Noll
Bruce J. Reider
Communications Skills Working Group Chair
Marvin L. Nickels
Disclaimer
This document provides writing guidance to students and faculty of the Command and General Staff College
(CGSC). It is not official Army or Department of Defense policy. This publication is clear for public release and
unlimited distribution. The Army and the CGSC do not endorse hyperlinked external content, nor do they control the
information you may find at these locations. All external links are for information only and are consistent with the
mission of this publication. Please contact us about inappropriate external links.
Preferred citation:
Lythgoe, Trent J., Allan S. Boyce, Sean N. Kalic, Richard A. McConnell, Mary L. Noll, and Bruce J. Reider.
Professional Writing: The Command and General Staff College Writing Guide. Fort Leavenworth: US Army
Command and General Staff College, 2023.
If you have an idea to improve this guide, please let us know:
US Army Command and General Staff College
Attn: Communications Skills Working Group
Lewis and Clark Center
100 Stimson Ave
Fort Leavenworth, KS 66027-1352
https://armyuniversity.edu/cgsc/cgsc
Published by the US Army Command and General Staff College
July 2023
iv
This page intentionally blank.
v
CONTENTS
P
REFACE ................................................................................................... VII
WRITING PROCESS QUICK GUIDE ................................................................. VIII
CHAPTER 1 PROFESSIONAL WRITING .............................................................. 1
Myths about Writing ............................................................................................................... 1
CGSC Writing Standards ....................................................................................................... 2
The Writing Process ............................................................................................................... 3
Tools, Not Rules..................................................................................................................... 4
CHAPTER 2 PLAN .......................................................................................... 5
Analyze the Task .................................................................................................................... 5
Make a Writing Plan ............................................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH .................................................................................. 9
Keeping Track of Sources ...................................................................................................... 9
Arguments .............................................................................................................................11
Sources of Evidence .............................................................................................................12
Avoiding Bias ........................................................................................................................13
Outlines .................................................................................................................................14
CHAPTER 4 DRAFT ...................................................................................... 17
Formatting .............................................................................................................................18
Essay Structure .....................................................................................................................18
Organizing Arguments...........................................................................................................20
Counterarguments ................................................................................................................22
Integrating Sources ...............................................................................................................22
CHAPTER 5 REVISE ..................................................................................... 25
Writing as Thinking ................................................................................................................26
Coherence and Cohesion ......................................................................................................26
Paper Revision ......................................................................................................................26
Paragraph Revision ...............................................................................................................28
CHAPTER 6 EDIT ......................................................................................... 33
Editing for Style .....................................................................................................................34
Balancing Clarity with Simplicity and Concision .....................................................................42
Tone ......................................................................................................................................43
CHAPTER 7 PUBLISH ................................................................................... 45
Proofreading .........................................................................................................................45
Submitting .............................................................................................................................46
vi
APPENDIX A FORMATTING ........................................................................... 47
Fonts .....................................................................................................................................47
Staff Products .......................................................................................................................48
Academic Papers ..................................................................................................................49
APPENDIX B CITATION SUPPLEMENT ............................................................ 53
Citation Basics ......................................................................................................................53
Citing Common Sources .......................................................................................................56
Citing Uncommon Sources ....................................................................................................57
Secondary Citations ..............................................................................................................60
APPENDIX C STYLE AND USAGE SUPPLEMENT ............................................... 61
General Conventions ............................................................................................................61
Military Words and Phrases ..................................................................................................63
APPENDIX D WRITING ASSESSMENT AND RUBRIC (FORM 1009W) ................... 67
Rubric ...................................................................................................................................68
APPENDIX E RESOURCES ............................................................................ 69
REFERENCES .............................................................................................. 71
TABLES
Table 1. Short essay writing plan ............................................................................................... 6
Table 2. Long essay writing plan ................................................................................................ 7
Table 3. Example two-column research notes format ................................................................10
Table 4. Sources of evidence. ...................................................................................................12
Table 5. Signal words................................................................................................................31
Table 6. Staff product references ..............................................................................................48
FIGURES
Figure 1. The writing process ..................................................................................................... 3
Figure 2. Planning and the writing process ................................................................................. 5
Figure 3. Research and the writing process ............................................................................... 9
Figure 4. Drafting and the writing process .................................................................................17
Figure 5. Basic essay structure .................................................................................................18
Figure 6. Argument organization in a short essay .....................................................................21
Figure 7. Argument organization in a long essay .......................................................................21
Figure 8. Revising and the writing process ................................................................................25
Figure 9. Argument organized within essay structure ................................................................31
Figure 10. Editing and the writing process .................................................................................33
Figure 11. Publishing and the writing process ...........................................................................45
Figure 12. Serif and sans serif letterforms .................................................................................47
vii
PREFACE
Effective written communication is a differentiator as a field grade. Written
communication not only provides me an opportunity to share ideas within my
organization, but also to influence strategic decision makers.
—LTC Dana Gingrich, US Army
75th Ranger Regiment Executive Officer, CGSC Class of 2019.
We are pleased to introduce Professional Writing: The Command and General Staff College
Writing Guide. This guide aims to help Command and General Staff College (CGSC) students
improve their writing skills. However, this guide is not just for CGSC students—it will help
anyone who wants to write well.
We designed this guide for professionals who already know how to write but want to
improve. We assume the reader understands the basics of standard written English. This is not a
syntax, grammar, spelling, or punctuation handbook.
The central idea of this guide is that writing is a process, not a product.0F
1
We avoid
distinguishing academic writing from professional writing. Although the products are different,
the process is the same. Once writers understand the process, they can use it to produce whatever
product circumstances demand.1F
2
This process-focused approach ensures that writing skills in this
guide are not just for academic work. Instead, they will be valuable to CGSC students long after
they leave Fort Leavenworth.
Finally, a word of encouragement to the reader. You can write! You will struggle, but all
writers do. Everyone writes terrible first drafts. Everyone. Do not be disappointed when your
writing is not “born perfect.”2F
3
Writing never is. Instead, rewrite. Use the process. This guide can
help.
Writing is hard. It always will be. But we hope this guide makes it easier—if only a little.
PROJECT AUTHORS
1
Murray, The Essential Don Murray, 3-6.
2
Murray, 3-6.
3
Zinsser, On Writing Well, 83.
viii
WRITING PROCESS QUICK GUIDE
Writing Activity
Standards
Plan
Analyze the task.
Make a writing plan.
• Write to achieve the purpose.
Research
Gather strong evidence.
Avoid bias.
Take organized notes.
Keep track of sources.
• Coherently advance a thesis.
• Support the thesis with strong evidence and
sound reasoning.
• Cite all sources, and format citations correctly.
Draft
Write an introduction, main body, and
conclusion.
Organize the main body logically.
State claims clearly. Support them with
evidence and reasoning.
Consider counterarguments.
Integrate sources using quotes,
paraphrases, and summaries.
• Write to achieve the purpose.
• Coherently advance a thesis.
• Support the thesis with strong evidence and
sound reasoning.
• Write a clear introduction, main body, and
conclusion.
• State the thesis early in the introduction.
• Arrange paragraphs and sections in a logical
order.
Revise
Revise for substance and organization.
Writing is thinking. Do more research
and drafting if needed.
Murder your darlings.
Revise paragraphs.
Use paragraph transitions.
• Coherently advance a thesis.
• Support the thesis with strong evidence and
sound reasoning.
• Write a clear introduction, main body, and
conclusion.
• State the thesis early in the introduction.
• Arrange paragraphs and sections in a logical
order.
• Organize paragraphs around one idea.
Edit
Make writing clear.
Prefer simple words and short
sentences.
Use concrete language.
Prefer active voice.
Write cohesive sentences.
Omit needless words.
Avoid hedging and throat clearing.
Avoid nominalizations.
Maintain a professional tone.
• Prefer clear, concise sentences.
• Prefer active voice.
• Prefer simple words and omit unnecessary
words.
• Maintain a professional tone—formal but
conversational and confident.
• Use conventional punctuation, spelling, and
grammar.
• Cite all sources, and format citations correctly.
Publish
Before publishing or turning in, confirm:
The essay achieves its purpose.
The introduction and conclusion agree.
The essay meets all administrative
requirements (e.g., word count).
Name or ID number is on the paper.
The document is correctly formatted.
The filetype is correct (some
professors may ask for a PDF).
All sources are cited.
Citations are complete and accurate.
• Write to achieve the purpose.
• Cite all sources, and format citations correctly.
• Format documents correctly.
1
CHAPTER 1
P
ROFESSIONAL WRITING
Writing is hard work. A clear sentence is no accident. Very few sentences come
out right the first time, or even the third time. Remember this in moments of
despair. If you find that writing is hard, it’s because it is hard.3F
4
—William Zinsser
This guide aims to help Command and General Staff College (CGSC) students succeed by
writing well. Strong writing skills enable CGSC students to succeed academically, but more
importantly, they empower CGSC graduates to succeed professionally. Commanders expect field
grade leaders and general staff officers to write with purpose, credibility, and clarity. This guide
helps students develop the writing skills needed to meet commanders’ expectations.
Writing at the CGSC is professional writing—purposeful, credible, and clear. Purposeful writing
meets the reader’s needs. Credible writing is objective and evidence-based. Clear writing is easy
to read and understand. Students who write with purpose, credibility, and clarity can meet the
academic demands of the CGSC and the professional demands of military leadership.
Myths about Writing
People often have misconceptions about writing that keep them from developing their writing
skills.4F
5
Perhaps the most common—and harmful—is that the ability to write well is a rare gift or
unique talent. The truth, however, is that writing is a skill, not a gift. Anyone willing to work at it
can learn to write well.
Other writing myths include:5F
6
Myth: Writing is easy for good writers but hard for weak writers.
Fact: Writing is hard for everyone. Good writers work hard at writing well. Their first drafts are
just as terrible as everyone else’s and require many rewrites. Ernest Hemingway, for example,
rewrote the last page of A Farewell to Arms 47 times.6F
7
Myth: Only weak writers need feedback.
Fact: All writers benefit from feedback; the best writers seek it out. Feedback from instructors
and peers helps writers develop and improve. Even successful professional writers get feedback
from their editors.
4
Zinsser, On Writing Well, 9.
5
Irvin, “What is ‘Academic’ Writing?” 4-5; Saint Louis University Writing Services, “10 Myths.”
6
Irvin, 4-5; Saint Louis University Writing Services.
7
Bracken, “A Farewell to Arms.”
2
Myth: Good writers have everything figured out before they start writing.
Fact: Writers rarely know exactly what they will write until they write it. Writing is a form of
thinking that reveals the strengths and weaknesses of arguments. Writers think and learn as they
write and rewrite, and their essays evolve as they learn. At the end of the writing process, the
final product is often very different from what the writer envisioned at the start.
Myth: Good writers use big words to sound smart. Simple words sound dumb.
Fact: The best writers use simple, clear, and concise language. Good writing is easy to read and
understand. Fancy language muddies writing and can often hide weak ideas.
CGSC Writing Standards
To achieve the goal of purposeful, credible, clear writing, students must meet the CGSC writing
standards. These standards comprise four areas of performance: substance, organization, style,
and correctness.
Substance is the intellectual content of the writing.
• Write to achieve the purpose.
• Coherently advance a thesis.
• Support the thesis with strong evidence and sound
reasoning.
Organization is the ordering of essay elements and ideas.
• Write a clear introduction, main body, and conclusion.
• State the thesis early and clearly.
• Arrange sections and paragraphs in a logical order.
• Organize paragraphs around one idea.
Style is how the writer communicates ideas through word choice, sentence structure, and tone.
• Write clearly so the text is easy to read and understand.
• Prefer clear, concise sentences.
• Prefer simple words and omit unnecessary words.
• Prefer active voice.
• Maintain a professional tone—formal but conversational and confident.
Correctness is using the conventions of standard written English and citing sources.
• Use conventional punctuation, spelling, and grammar.
• Format documents correctly.
• Cite all sources and format citations correctly.
8
Lamott, Bird by Bird, 3.
Good writing is about telling
the truth.7F
8
—Anne Lamott
3
The CGSC writing standards are interdependent and equally important. Some students may be
tempted to work hard on substance while neglecting the other standards. This approach is a
mistake. Strong substance presented in an unorganized, confusing, error-ridden product is
unacceptable in professional settings. Writers must meet all four standards to achieve the overall
goals of purpose, credibility, and clarity.
The Writing Process
The secret to writing is rewriting.
Good writing is effortless to read. But effortless reading
comes from painstaking rewriting—the revising and
editing writers do after the first draft. Drafting—turning
ideas into words, sentences, and paragraphs—is just one
step of the writing process.
The writing process comprises six activities: planning,
research, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing
(Figure 1).
• Planning involves understanding the writing task and making a plan to achieve it.
• Research is collecting, organizing, and analyzing the facts the writer will use as evidence.
• Drafting is turning ideas and research into words, sentences, and paragraphs.
• Revision is rewriting the draft to improve substance, organization, coherence, and
cohesion.
• Editing involves rewriting a revision to make it clear, simple, and concise.
• Publishing includes proofreading the final draft and submitting the final product.
Figure 1. The writing process
9
Zinsser, Writing to Learn, 15.
The essence of writing is
rewriting. Very few writers say on
their first try exactly what they
want to say.8F
9
—William Zinsser
4
The writing process is nonlinear. Writers go back and forth between activities as they write and
rewrite.9F
10
Although frustrating at times, this laborious back-and-forth is necessary to transform
disjointed drafts into effortless essays.
Tools, Not Rules
This text is a guide, not a rulebook. Writing cannot be reduced to unbreakable rules. What works
well in one sentence, paragraph, or paper may not work well in the next one. For example,
Chapter 5 of this guide advises writers to “murder your darlings”—a hyperbolic statement that
describes the difficulty of discarding writing that does not advance the thesis. Yet, Chapter 6
advises writers to avoid hyperbole. The authors of this guide chose to keep “murder your
darlings” because it is memorable and communicates a key idea.
Another example is this guide’s treatment of passive voice. The style standards urge writers to
prefer active voice. Yet, Chapter 6 discusses using passive voice for cohesive sentences.
These examples reinforce the idea that writing is not a set of rules, but a series of choices among
alternatives. Each alternative will be more or less effective depending on the reader and the
subject. This guide offers tools to help writers make effective choices.
However, no guide can anticipate every circumstance. Writers, like carpenters or mechanics,
must learn to use a variety of tools, then choose the best tools for each job. This guide can help,
but it can only inform the writer’s choices. It cannot dictate them.
0B
★ QUICK
TIP ★
Quick tips are helpful ways to accomplish writing tasks. The quick tips in this guide draw on
experienced writers’ best practices and appear in shaded boxes like this one.
10
Irvin, “What is ‘Academic’ Writing?” 4.
5
CHAPTER 2
P
LAN
Writing is thinking on paper.10F
11
—William Zinsser
Writing standards to focus on when planning:
Substance
•
Write to achieve the purpose.
Figure 2. Planning and the writing process
Most professional writing begins with a directed purpose. For example, a professor assigns an
essay, or a commander requires an information paper. Before putting pen to paper (or fingers to
keyboard), the writer must understand the purpose of the writing task and develop a plan to
achieve it.
Notably, scholarly works (theses, monographs, and academic articles) require the author to
establish the essay’s purpose using a compelling research question. However, posing a good
research question is beyond the scope of this guide. Students writing scholarly research should
consult a research methods text that discusses how to craft a research question.11F
12
Analyze the Task
Analyzing a directed writing task may seem simple—even trivial. But many students have
launched headlong into a writing project only to later discover they answered the wrong
question, analyzed the wrong article, or otherwise misunderstood the task. Analyzing and
understanding the task at the start avoids wasted effort.
11
Zinsser, Writing to Learn, 11.
12
For scholarly writing, consider Booth et al., The Craft of Research.
6
At the CGSC, professors often assign writing tasks with an essay prompt. For example:
In 750 words or less, analyze the Egyptians’ crossing of the Suez Canal in the
1973 Arab-Israeli War. Use current Army doctrine as your analysis framework.
This prompt gives three tasks: analyze the crossing of the Suez Canal, use current Army doctrine
as the analysis framework, and keep the essay to 750 words or less. The writer must meet all
three requirements. If not, they have failed to meet the most important writing standard: write to
achieve the purpose.
It is essential to understand the task and write to achieve it. Given the task above, for example, a
writer could easily get caught up in the history of the 1973 war and write a historical explanation
instead of a doctrinal one. Such an essay, no matter how carefully researched and skillfully
written, fails to achieve its purpose.
Make a Writing Plan
After analyzing the task, make a plan to accomplish it. The time required to complete the writing
task depends on its length and difficulty. Short essays (less than ~750 words) require about 7–10
days.12F
13
Table 1 shows an example writing plan for a short essay:
Table 1. Short essay writing plan
Day Goal
Monday Analyze the task and begin research
Tuesday Research
Wednesday Draft
Thursday Revise; Additional research and drafting
Friday Rest
Saturday Revise
Sunday Rest
Monday Edit
Tuesday Extra day
Wednesday Publish (submit)
Longer (more than ~750 words) essays take several weeks and require several rounds of
rewriting.13F
14
Thus, it is important to start the writing process well before the due date. Table 2
shows an example writing plan for a long essay.
13
One page of writing with 1-inch margins, double-spaced, in 12-point Times New Roman font is about 250 words.
Thus, a 750-word essay is about 3 pages.
14
Longer essays require more time, not just because the writer must write more words, but also because they tend to
be more complex and thus require more research and rewriting.
7
Table 2. Long essay writing plan
Week Goal
Week 1 Analyze the prompt and begin research
Week 2 Research
Week 3 Draft
Week 4 Revise; Additional research and drafting
Week 5 Revise
Week 6 Edit
Week 7 Extra week
Week 8 Publish (submit)
All writing plans should include time for the writing to rest between drafts, revisions, and edits.
These breaks allow the writer to return to the essay with fresh eyes and notice problems they
would otherwise miss. It is also a good idea, as shown in the plans above, to include an extra day
(or week) to allow for unexpected events.
8
This page intentionally blank.
9
CHAPTER 3
R
ESEARCH
Don’t raise your voice. Improve your argument.14F
15
― Desmond Tutu
Writing standards to focus on while researching:
Substance
• Coherently advance a thesis.
• Support the thesis with strong evidence and sound reasoning.
Correctness
• Cite all sources, and format citations correctly.
Figure 3. Research and the writing process
Once writers understand the task and have a plan to achieve it, they are ready to begin
research—the process of collecting, organizing, and analyzing the facts the writer will use as
evidence in the essay.
Keeping Track of Sources
Before starting research, writers must have a plan to keep track of the citation information for the
sources they examine.
Writers cite other authors’ material for three reasons.15 F
16
First, academic ethics and copyright laws
require authors to identify and give credit to other authors. Second, citations help the reader
understand the evidence for claims and view it for themselves. Third, citations make writing
15
Tutu, The Second Nelson Mandela Lecture Address.
16
University of Mississippi, “Why Do We Cite Borrowed Information?”
10
stronger by showing that the writer has reviewed the research on their topic and used it to
support their arguments.
The CGSC’s preferred citation style is Chicago shortened footnotes and bibliography.16F
17
Access
the Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) online through the Combined Arms Research Library
(CARL). Appendix B describes the basics of Chicago style and how to cite sources CMS does
not cover (e.g., military doctrine).
Writers use research notes to record source content and citation information. There are many
ways to take research notes. Use any method that works as long as it records the source
information necessary to build a complete citation and separates source information (quotations,
paraphrases, and summaries) from the researcher’s analysis.
Table 3 shows an example two-column research note system with the citation information at the
top, the source information in the left column, and the researcher’s analysis in the right column:
Table 3. Example two-column research notes format
Creveld, Martin L. Van. Command in War. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987.
Source Information
Notes/Analysis
222-223
“[Elazar] ...had insisted on personally approving
company-sized moves that were taking place a
couple of hundred miles away.”
These passages illustrate the important point
that excessive control is not a substitute for
lack of trust. Unfortunately, excessive control is
often the byproduct of mistrust, but that doesn’t
translate to tactical success. Commanders
must trust subordinates, regardless of the
degree of control imposed.
228
“...mutual trust, however, was lacking at Southern
Command because of very bad personal relations
among the senior commanders.”
“[Elazar]’s distrust of Gonen led him to reserve
approval of the most important moves to himself.
Gonen, in turn, was thereby compelled to restrict
Adan and Sharon in a similar way, and so right down
the line.”
230
“…the Israeli failure was not primarily due to
technological inadequacy. Having enjoyed six years
in which to turn the Sinai into a fortress, the IDF in
1973 had a communications system that was
technically about as good as it could be. It was
certainly much superior to the one employed in 1967,
and may indeed have been too good insofar as it
enabled Elazar to proceed as he did.”
A good point about letting technology drive C2
rather than the other way around. Also, may
reference page 229, in which commanders
positioned themselves on the battlefield to best
maintain communications with higher, rather
than the best position to overwatch their forces
in the fight.
17
University of Chicago, Chicago Manual of Style, 14.19, 14.29.
11
Citation Software
Many writers use citation software (e.g., Zotero, EndNote, Mendeley) to store source
information and create citations. Citation software saves time by producing footnotes and
bibliographies with a few clicks. Most citation applications have web browser plugins that allow
users to save citation data with one click. Citation software is also flexible. It readily converts
documents from one citation system to another. And once a source is saved, the writer can easily
reuse it in multiple projects.
However, computer-generated citations are only as good as the information in the software
database. The citations will be incorrect if the user enters incorrect data, or the software retrieves
incorrect data from the internet. Always review software-generated notes and bibliographies and
make needed corrections. The software can do most of the work, but the author is still
responsible for complete, accurate citations.
Arguments
Writers gather evidence to support arguments—claims supported by evidence and reasoning.
Arguments are, of course, central to argumentative essays. But they are also important in most
types of professional military writing.
One example is the running estimates Army staff officers build during planning.17F
18
Staff officers
gather evidence such as facts and assumptions about friendly forces, enemy forces, the civilian
population, and the environment. They analyze this information and recommend courses of
action to the commander. These recommendations are claims that staff officers must support
with evidence from the running estimate.
Other examples of professional writing that includes arguments are point papers, white papers,
decision papers, and even award recommendations. In fact, field grade officers rarely write
without making claims. Commanders need to know the facts, but also what the facts mean, and
the conclusions and recommendations the facts support. In short, supporting claims with
evidence and reasoning is not just for argumentative writing. Instead, it is a critical staff officer
skill.
Claims, Evidence, and Reasoning
An argument consists of three parts: a claim, evidence, and reasoning.1 8F
19
A claim is an assertion or conclusion.19F
20
A strong claim is:20F
21
• Clear and specific. The reader can understand the claim’s intent and scope. Vague claims
are difficult to understand; broad claims are difficult to support.
18
Dept. of the Army, Commander and Staff, p.2-3.
19
McNeill and Krajcik, “Inquiry and Scientific Explanations,” 123-24.
20
McNeill and Krajcik, 123.
21
University of Mississippi, “Claims, Reasons, and Evidence.”
12
• Relevant. The claim is important to the paper’s topic and thesis.
• Supportable. A writer can provide sufficient evidence to support the claim. Broad claims
are difficult to support because they require substantial evidence; specific claims are
easier to support because they require less evidence.
Evidence is the facts and information that support claims.21F
22
Evidence is essential to make writing
credible. Writing that makes claims without evidence is opinion or fiction. Strong evidence is:
• Relevant. The evidence is clearly related to the claim.
• Sufficient. There is enough evidence to convince the reader that the claim is true.
• Credible. The source of the evidence is trustworthy, and the writer has the citation to
prove it.
• Unbiased. The evidence does not unfairly lead the reader to accept or reject the claim.
Finally, reasoning is the logic and analysis that connects the evidence to the claim.22F
23
Sound
reasoning is:
• Explanatory. It explains how and why the evidence supports the claim.
• Logical. The elements of the explanation are true and allow a fair-minded reader to infer
that the claim is true.
• Clear. The reader can easily follow the logic from the evidence to the claim.
Sources of Evidence
Effective arguments need strong evidence from trustworthy, objective sources. Scholarly works,
which are written and peer-reviewed by experts, make the strongest evidence (Table 4). Some
non-scholarly material, although weaker than scholarly work, is nevertheless credible. Avoid
noncredible media and publications that lack expert authorship. Tools for finding credible
evidence include the Combined Arms Research Library, JSTOR, and Google Scholar.
Table 4. Sources of evidence.
Strong
Strength of Evidence
Weak
Scholarly
Credible
Not credible
• Articles from reputable
academic journals
• Books from academic
presses
• Expert talks and
presentations
• Research reports supported
with scholarly sources
• Non-scholarly (e.g., trade)
journals
• Military doctrine
• Credible media
• US government publications
• Encyclopedias
• Books from non-academic
presses
• Entertainment, sports,
partisan, and tabloid media.
• Self-published books
• Wikipedia
• Editorials and non-expert
opinions
• Predatory (pay-to-publish)
journals
Adapted from: University of Arizona Global Campus, “What Is a Scholarly Source?”
22
McNeill and Krajcik, “Inquiry and Scientific Explanations,” 123.
23
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, “Claim-Evidence-Reasoning.”
13
1B
★ QUICK
TIP ★
Using Wikipedia
Avoid citing Wikipedia directly. Since anyone can edit Wikipedia articles, writers cannot be
sure they are trustworthy. However, Wikipedia is still a useful research tool. Many Wikipedia
articles have links to credible sources. Instead of citing the Wikipedia article, find the sources
the article cites and cite them directly.
Avoiding Bias
Bias is any deviation from the truth, intentional or unintentional, that leads to false
conclusions.23F
24
Writing becomes biased when the author relies on biased evidence or presents
otherwise unbiased evidence in biased ways. Common biases include:
• Confirmation bias occurs when an author collects or interprets evidence in a way that
confirms the author’s desired conclusion. Confirmation bias includes gathering
confirming evidence while avoiding disconfirming evidence. It can also involve
interpreting confirming evidence as more credible than disconfirming evidence.24F
25
• Distorting the facts means using exaggerated or imprecise language to make information
seem more or less extreme than it is.25F
26
Here is an example: “Everyone knows Douglas
MacArthur was a terrible leader.” Everyone is an exaggeration, and terrible is imprecise.
• Misrepresenting sources means paraphrasing or summarizing information incompletely
or misleadingly. Misrepresenting a source often occurs when an author quotes a source
out of context in a way that distorts the original author’s intent.26F
27
• Inflammatory bias means using language to elicit an emotional response.27F
28
For example,
labeling the irregular soldiers of the American Revolution as “patriots” or “terrorists”
could elicit emotions that lead the reader to biased conclusions.
Strategies to avoid bias include:28F
29
• Rely on scholarly and credible sources.
• Take careful notes of the evidence in sources. Be sure to separate the source information
from the researcher’s analysis.
• Keep an open mind. Having a preliminary guess (hypothesis) about claims and
conclusions is normal. But do not commit to a position before doing at least some
research.
24
Simundic, “Bias in Research,” 12.; University of Mississippi, “Bias and Research.”; Labaree, “Evaluating
Sources.”
25
University of Mississippi, “Glossary of Biases.”
26
Labree, “Evaluating Sources.”
27
Labree.
28
Labree.
29
University of Mississippi, “Strategies for Making a Successful Argument.”
14
• Read broadly. Study the range of views on a topic. Avoid gathering evidence only from
sources that agree with a preliminary hypothesis.
• Focus on facts not opinions. It is normal to have opinions about a topic. However, as a
scholar and professional, it is vital to remain objective and present the evidence fairly. Do
not allow personal opinions to influence professional conclusions.
• Be willing to change your position. During research, writers sometimes discover the
evidence for their initial position is weak. If so, they must be objective enough to modify
or reject weakly supported claims.
2B
★
QUICK TIP
★
Read strategically
Reading strategically is a technique for efficient research.29F
30
Graduate students and military
professionals may not always have time to read everything from beginning to end. Reading
strategically helps readers save time without compromising the depth and quality of research.
• Understand the purpose. Why are you reading? What is the critical information to get
from the reading?
• Start with the abstract, introduction and conclusion. These sections clarify the
reading’s main ideas and which parts are most relevant.
• Scan the headings, figures, and tables. Get a sense of how the reading is organized
and which parts to read in detail.
• Read only what is necessary to achieve the purpose. Sometimes reading every word
is necessary, but not always.
Outlines
An outline helps the writer visualize an essay’s organization and flow. As writers research a
topic, it can be useful to organize the research in an essay outline. Writers can then use the
outline as a guide when drafting. Below is a template for an essay outline.
30
University of Nebraska, “Reading Strategically.”
15
Essay Outline Template
Essay question or prompt.
• Introduction
o Topic
o Thesis
o Signposts
• Main body
o Major point or supporting claim #1
Evidence and reasoning
Evidence and reasoning
Evidence and reasoning
o Major point or supporting claim #2
Evidence and reasoning
Evidence and reasoning
Evidence and reasoning
o Major point or supporting claim #3
Evidence and reasoning
Evidence and reasoning
Evidence and reasoning
o Counterargument
Turn away
Turn back
• Conclusion
o Restated thesis
o Restated supporting claims
16
This page intentionally blank.
17
CHAPTER 4
D
RAFT
When you first start writing…you’re scared to death that if you don’t get that
sentence right that minute it’s never going to show up again. And it isn’t. But it
doesn’t matter—another one will, and it’ll probably be better. And I don’t mind
writing badly for a couple of days because I know I can fix it-and fix it again
and again and again, and it will be better.30F
31
—Toni Morrison
Writing standards to focus on while drafting:
Substance
• Write to achieve the purpose.
• Coherently advance a thesis.
• Support the thesis with strong evidence and sound reasoning.
Organization
• Write a clear introduction, main body, and conclusion.
• State the thesis early and clearly.
• Arrange sections and paragraphs in a logical order.
Figure 4. Drafting and the writing process
Drafting is turning ideas and research into words, sentences, and paragraphs. The goal of
drafting is to quickly write the bulk of the essay without stopping to fix style and correctness
problems. Focus on quantity, not quality.
31
Morrison, What Moves at the Margin, 79
18
Fast drafting is tough. Writers find it difficult to resist the urge to revise and edit as they draft.
However, remember that everyone’s drafts are ugly. Trying to make drafts less ugly by rewriting
along the way only slows the process.
Formatting
Begin drafting with a correctly formatted document (font, margins, spacing, etc.). Correct
formatting is essential in professional writing—especially when organizations establish
standardized formats. Correct formatting makes a positive first impression with the reader, and
standardized formats help senior leaders take in large amounts of information efficiently. Senior
leaders can become distracted (and irritable!) when products deviate from standardized formats.
Appendix A discusses formats for staff products and academic papers.
Essay Structure
A basic essay has three parts: the introduction, main body, and conclusion (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Basic essay structure
Introduction
The introduction tells the reader what to expect—what the essay is about and how it will
proceed. A good introduction:
• States the topic or purpose
• States the thesis
• Signposts (briefly lists) the major points the author will cover
When writing for publication, authors often begin the introduction with a “hook” to get the
reader’s attention. For example, the author might explain why their topic is important or discuss
the interesting puzzle their essay solves.
For most professional writing, however, a hook is unnecessary. The writer already has the
reader’s attention because the commander or professor that assigned the writing is surely
interested in the finished product. Thus, the writer can keep the introduction short—topic, thesis,
and signposts.
19
Thesis statement
A thesis statement explains the essay’s main idea.31F
32
It should be short—typically one or two
sentences—and clear. The thesis statement’s structure depends on the essay’s purpose.
An argumentative essay thesis statement establishes the writer’s position and the reasons it is
legitimate.
The Russian invasion of Ukraine demonstrates that intangible factors still
matter in war. The Russians’ poor performance is a result of low morale, poor
discipline, and inadequate leadership.
An analytical essay thesis statement describes the topic analyzed and the resulting conclusions.
Analyzing Field Marshal William Slim’s leadership of the Burma Campaign
shows that shared values, cross-cultural awareness, and transcultural leadership
inspire success in multinational operations.
An expository essay thesis statement states the essay topic and key points.
Factors that influenced the Battle of Gettysburg include logistics, terrain,
intelligence, and leadership.
Expository essays are rare in professional writing because they communicate facts without
analysis. As discussed earlier, commanders (and CGSC professors) want more than just facts.
They ask, “So what?” They expect field grade writers to analyze facts, draw conclusions, and
make recommendations.
Main Body
The main body presents the essay’s substance in a series of paragraphs. The paragraphs should
appear in a logical order and support the thesis. The order (organization) of main body
paragraphs is critical because it shows the reader how each paragraph is related to the others and
the essay’s overall purpose.
Logical frameworks that help writers organize the main body include:32F
33
• Chronological. Present events in the order they occurred.
o First… Second… Third…
o At first… Next… Finally…
• Causal. Discuss causes then effects.
o X occurred…X caused Y… X also caused Z.
32
University of Arizona, “Writing a Thesis Statement.”
33
Royal, The Little Red Writing Book, 29-33.
20
• Sequential. Discuss ideas in a logical order.
o Tactical… Operational… Strategic…
o Enlisted… NCOs… Officers…
• Comparative. Compare two or more items using common criteria.
o Compare US and Chinese armies regarding people, technology, and doctrine.
• Compare and Contrast. Discuss similarities (compare) and differences (contrast).
o The US Army and Marine Corps are similar in A, B, and C, but different in X, Y,
and Z.
• Evaluative. Discuss positives and negatives, strengths and weaknesses, etc.
o He did A and B well but failed at C and D.
o A and B are advantages while C and D are disadvantages.
• Problem and Solution. Discuss the problem, then how to solve it.
o The problem is A. The problem occurred because of B and C. However, we can
solve the problem with X, Y, and Z.
• Categorical. The order does not matter.
o Here are brief overviews of the US Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, and
Space Force.
Conclusion
The conclusion tells the reader what they should take away from the essay by restating the thesis
and major points. When writing for publication, the conclusion may include additional elements
such as reiterating the topic’s significance, making recommendations, or suggesting future
research. For most professional writing, however, these elements are beyond the scope of the
writing task. A short conclusion that restates the thesis and main points is enough.
Organizing Arguments
Writers use the essay’s introduction, main body, and conclusion to organize arguments. First, the
writer states their main claim as a thesis statement in the introduction. Next, they present
evidence and reasoning in the main body. Finally, the writer uses the conclusion to restate the
main claim.
Essay structure varies based on the number and complexity of the arguments it presents. The
figures below show how a writer might organize different essays. Figure 6 shows a simple essay
with one claim supported by three pieces of evidence.
21
Figure 6. Argument organization in a short essay
Figure 7 shows a longer essay with one main claim and several supporting claims. The writer has
divided the essay into three major sections aligned with each supporting claim. Each major
section resembles a short essay with a section introduction, main body, and conclusion.
Figure 7. Argument organization in a long essay
22
Counterarguments
A counterargument is a belief that refutes a claim.33F
34
If credible counterarguments to a claim
exist, readers will be skeptical of the claim. In these cases, writers must strengthen their
arguments by anticipating, acknowledging, and confronting credible counterarguments.
Confronting counterarguments occurs in two stages: the turn against, and the turn back.
34F
35
First, the writer turns against their own argument by acknowledging and explaining the
counterargument. Examples include:
• Perceived problems with a claim, e.g., weak evidence or flawed reasoning.
• Perceived bias presentation or omission of evidence.
• Potential disadvantages or drawbacks to a proposal.
• Alternative conclusions supported by the evidence.
Next, the writer turns back to their argument by showing that the original claim is still valid.
35F
36
Strategies for turning back include refuting, acknowledging, and conceding.
• Refute the counterargument by showing that it is flawed.
• Acknowledge that the counterargument is plausible, but on balance, weaker than the
original claim and not enough to refute it.
• Concede that the counterargument is valid and complicates part of the original claim.
Importantly, the counterargument should weaken only part of the original claim. If it
undercuts it completely, the original claim is fatally flawed.
Confronting counterarguments my require as little as a few sentences or as much as a major
section. For example, a writer might refute a counterargument to a minor idea in the same
paragraph that introduces the idea. Alternatively, if there are strong counterarguments to a
writer’s thesis, the writer may need several paragraphs or a major section to refute them.
Integrating Sources
Writers integrate sources in essays by quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing.36F
37
Quoting replicates a source text word-for-word.37F
38
Quote sparingly. Quotations make writing
lengthy. Using many quotations can signal weak writing by suggesting that the writer does not
understand the sources well enough to paraphrase or summarize them. Avoid quotations unless a
paraphrase or summary will distort the original meaning. Here is a quotation from The
Gettysburg Campaign by Reardon and Vossler (p. 40):
34
University of Mississippi, “Counterargument.”
35
Harvard College Writing Center. “Counterargument.”
36
Harvard College Writing Center. “Counterargument.”
37
Nash, “Quoting, Paraphrasing and Summarizing.”
38
Appendix B discusses inline and block quotation formatting.
23
When the men of the 20th Maine had exhausted their ammunition, Chamberlain
ordered them to fix bayonets. Accounts vary about the impetus for what
happened next, but suffice to say that the 20th Maine’s refused flank led the
charge down Little Round Top’s eastern slope, the line of onrushing men
swinging out like a giant gate. “The effect was surprising,” Chamberlain
reported, “many of the enemy’s first line threw down their arms and
surrendered.” A Confederate officer fired his pistol at Chamberlain while
offering his sword in token of surrender. The 20th Maine routed the exhausted
Alabamians, but Chamberlain lost 124 of his 386 men during the fight, 42 of
them killed or mortally wounded.
Paraphrasing restates source material in the writer’s own words. Paraphrases are better than
quotations because they shorten the original passage and give the writer more flexibility to link
the source to the writer’s analysis. Paraphrasing also demonstrates that the writer understands the
source material well enough to extract the main ideas, explain them, and use them as evidence.
Here is an example that paraphrases the quotation above:
When his soldiers ran out of ammunition, Chamberlain ordered a bayonet
charge. The 20th Maine rushed down the eastern slope of Little Round Top.
The charge surprised the Alabamians. Many simply surrendered. The 20th
Maine was victorious, but the victory cost nearly one-third of Chamberlain’s
regiment dead or wounded.
Summarizing reduces the source text to the key points. Summaries shorten the original
substantially by focusing only on the main ideas and omitting small details. Here is a summary
of the quotation above:
When his soldiers ran out of ammunition, Chamberlain ordered a bayonet
charge. The charge succeeded but at a terrible cost.
3B
★
QUICK TIP
★
Use citation placeholders while drafting.
When drafting, write as rapidly as possible without stopping to revise or edit. Still, it is
important to mark where citations go but in a way that does not slow down drafting. One way
to do this is by using in-text citation placeholders. Instead of stopping to create a full, properly
formatted citation, simply insert a placeholder in parenthesis and continue drafting.
When his Soldiers ran out of ammunition, Chamberlain ordered a bayonet charge. The
charge was successful, but at the cost of 124 Soldiers dead or wounded (cite Reardon and
Vossler).
24
This page intentionally blank.
25
CHAPTER 5
R
EVISE
When a draft is completed, the job of writing can begin.38F
39
—Don Murray
Writing standards to focus on when revising
the paper:
Substance
• Coherently advance a thesis.
Organization
• Write a clear introduction, main body,
and conclusion.
• State the thesis early in the
introduction.
• Arrange sections and paragraphs in a
logical order.
Writing standards to focus on when revising
paragraphs:
Substance
• Support the thesis with strong
evidence and sound reasoning.
Organization
• Organize paragraphs around one idea.
Figure 8. Revising and the writing process
Revising means “re-seeing” writing to ensure it says what the writer intends.39F
40
Revision occurs
in two stages. Paper-level revision improves the essay’s substance and organization; paragraph-
level revision improves paragraphs.
39
Murray, The Maker’s Eye, 611.
40
Jones, Revision and Editing.
26
When revising, focus on substance, organization and logic. Avoid correcting grammar,
punctuation, and spelling errors. Wait until editing to fix these problems.
Writing as Thinking
Writing helps the writer think by revealing weak
arguments. When writers revise drafts, they discover
passages that seemed strong when they drafted them,
but now look weak. These discoveries prompt writers
to do additional research and drafting.
Going back can be frustrating. But experienced writers
know that iterating through research, drafting, and
revising is part of the writing process. Each revision
refines, strengthens, and sharpens arguments.
Coherence and Cohesion
An important part of rewriting is making writing coherent and cohesive. Coherence is a macro
concept that describes how well the parts of the essay work as a whole to advance the thesis.41 F
42
Writers build coherence by stating the thesis clearly at the beginning and supporting it with a
well-organized main body.
Cohesion is a micro concept that describes how well the elements of an essay “hold together.”42F
43
Cohesive writing pulls the reader along by helping them understand how each new sentence and
paragraph is related to the previous one(s). Writers improve cohesion using paragraph
transitions, signal words, and logical sentence structures.
Paper Revision
During paper revision, focus on revising the paper as a whole. The writer’s goal is to confirm
they have clearly stated the thesis and supported it with a logically organized main body.43F
44
Questions to ask during paper revision include:
• Does the paper achieve its purpose? Does it answer the question(s) or complete the
required task(s)?
• Does the introduction discuss the topic, state the thesis, and signpost the major points?
• Is the thesis statement clear? Does it appear early in the essay?
• Does the main body support the thesis? Does each major section and paragraph build
support for the main idea?
41
McCloskey, Economical Writing, 7
42
Regent University Writing Lab, “Coherence and Cohesion,” 1-2
43
Regent University Writing Lab, 2-3
44
Jones, “Revision and Editing.”
Good writers…sometimes discover in
the act of writing that what looked
persuasive when floating vaguely in
the mind looks foolish when moored
to the page.40F
41
—Deirdre McCloskey
27
• Is the main body logically structured? Do the major sections and paragraphs appear in a
logical order?
• Is everything in the main body relevant to the thesis (see murder your darlings below)?
• Does the conclusion restate the thesis and the main points? Do the introduction and
conclusion agree?
4B
★ QUICK
TIP ★
Use a reverse outline to check for logic and coherence.
A reverse outline helps writers check if their essay is logically structured and coherent. To
create a reverse outline, highlight the main idea of each paragraph, write it in the margin, or
scribble it on a clean page. Next, examine the overall structure and flow of the ideas. Do they
support the thesis? Do they appear in a logical order? Are there gaps? Do ideas repeat?
Reorganize and rewrite the paragraphs as needed to ensure all parts of the essay work
together as a whole to advance the thesis.
Murder Your Darlings
Paper-level revision often reveals passages that do not
advance the thesis. Remove them, or as experienced
writers say, “murder your darlings.”45F
46
As this dramatic
metaphor implies, removing unnecessary passages is
often painful. Writing is hard work; throwing away some
of that work can feel like killing something loved.
Nevertheless, removing excess is essential to produce
clear, concise writing.
5B
★ QUICK
TIP ★
When time is short, write a draft and a half.
Although planning time for rewriting is always best, busy professionals must occasionally
write on short notice. Still, sending a raw first draft is always a bad idea. Instead, write a draft
and a half.46F
47
Write a draft, then revise once. Focus only on removing clutter. Delete unneeded
passages (murder your darlings). Summarize, paraphrase, or cut long quotations. Omit
unnecessary words. A single revision to remove clutter is less effective than a full revision
and edit but better than a raw first draft.
45
King, On Writing, 57
46
Quiller-Couch, On Style
47
Clark, Writing Tools, 51.
“When you write a story, you’re
telling yourself the story,” he said.
“When you rewrite, your main job
is taking out all the things that are
not the story.”44F
45
—Stephen King
28
Paragraph Revision
The second stage of revision focuses on building effective paragraphs. A paragraph is a unit of
thought. Each paragraph coherently develops one idea using a series of related sentences, and it
clearly states that idea early—usually in the first sentence.
There are no rules for paragraph length. Writers may come across paragraph “rules” that suggest,
for example, that a paragraph should be 6-8 sentences long, or 1 inch deep on the page. But these
and similar “rules” are bad advice. A paragraph is a unit of thought. Make it as long as it needs to
be to communicate the thought (but no longer).
Complex thoughts may require multiple paragraphs. Two or three short paragraphs are usually
better than one long one. Divide complex thoughts into logical (not necessarily equal) parts and
place paragraph breaks where they are most natural. Paragraph breaks allow the reader to “take a
breath”—pause and process the preceding idea before moving on to the next one.
The MEAL Model
MEAL is a model for organizing paragraphs.48 F
49
MEAL
stands for main idea, evidence and analysis, and linkage.
• The topic sentence states the paragraph’s main
idea.
• The middle sentences discuss the evidence and
analysis that support the main idea.
• The last sentence links the paragraph to the main
idea of the paragraph, section, or paper.
Main Idea
Each paragraph discusses one idea. The topic sentence states that idea. The first sentence of the
paragraph is usually the topic sentence.
Clearly stating each paragraph’s main idea is essential. It helps the writer organize the paragraph
by clarifying what evidence and analysis are necessary to support the main idea. Moreover,
clearly stating the main idea helps the reader understand the paragraph because they know what
it is about from the start.
Although stating the main idea up front seems obvious, most writers do not do it—at least not in
first drafts. Instead, they bury the main idea in the middle of the paragraph, or more often, at the
end. This occurs because the main idea is the conclusion the writer wants to communicate, and
conclusions come naturally at the end of a thought.
48
McCloskey, Economical Writing, 44
49
MEAL is only one of many paragraph models. See University of New Castle, Writing Strong Paragraphs.
The paragraph should be a more
or less complete discussion of
one topic.47F
48
—Deirdre McCloskey
29
Good writers overcome this natural tendency by stating the conclusion—the main idea—first.
During revision, find the main idea of each paragraph and move it to the topic sentence. Below is
an example of a buried main idea (left) versus a strong topic sentence (right).
Main idea buried
Main idea up front
As the commander of the Fourteenth Army,
Lt. Gen. William Slim personally visited his
soldiers and unified them around shared
values of freedom and human decency. He
appealed to their shared interest in fighting for
a just cause against a brutal enemy. As a
result, his soldiers committed themselves to
the cause of victory. Slim’s approach
demonstrates how commanders can use
shared values and interests to gain
commitment in multi-national operations.
Lt. Gen. William Slim’s command of the
Fourteenth Army demonstrates how
commanders can use shared values and
interests to gain commitment in multi-
national operations. Slim personally visited
his soldiers and unified them around shared
values of freedom and human decency. He
appealed to their shared interest in fighting for
a just cause against a brutal enemy. As a
result, his soldiers committed themselves to
the cause of victory.
Evidence and Analysis
The middle sentences of a paragraph present and analyze evidence.
Evidence is the information gathered during research that supports the thesis. Evidence includes
paraphrases, summaries, and examples of sources. Evidence can also be quotations, but as
discussed earlier, use them sparingly.
Analysis is an explanation of how the evidence supports the main idea. Without analysis, an
argument is incomplete. In professional writing, evidence never “speaks for itself.” Instead, the
author must explicitly describe how the evidence supports the main idea.
Linkage
The last sentence links the paragraph back to the main idea of the paragraph, section, or paper.
The last sentence sometimes links to the next paragraph when developing a complex passage.
What the last sentence links to depends on the paragraph’s role in the essay. In all cases,
however, the last sentence should help the reader understand why the paragraph they have just
read is relevant and how it fits into the overall scheme of the section or essay.49F
50
To understand the MEAL model, consider an example essay that begins with this introduction:
This essay analyzes Robert E. Lee’s tactical performance at the Battle of
Gettysburg. It argues that Lee lost the battle because of three tactical blunders.
First, he used his cavalry ineffectively before the battle. Second, he did not
seize key terrain when he had the opportunity. Finally, he ordered a futile attack
against the Federal center.
50
Duke University, “Paragraphing: The MEAL Plan.”
30
The introduction signposts Lee’s poor use of cavalry as the first major point that supports the
thesis. The author presents this major point in the first main body paragraph:
On June 23rd, Lee allowed his cavalry commander J.E.B. Stuart to take his best
cavalry units, leave the army’s main body, and ride around the Federal army.
1
Lee did not trust the remaining cavalry units and did not use them to scout
ahead of the army. On July 1st, two of Lee’s corps stumbled into Federal
cavalry northwest of Gettysburg.
2
Neither the corps commanders nor Lee knew
how much of the Federal army they were fighting or whether the terrain was
favorable for a battle.
————
1
Arthur and Ballard, Gettysburg Staff Ride, 4–5.
2
Sears, Gettysburg, 197–202.
The paragraph above is ineffective because it omits three of the four MEAL elements. The first
sentence does not state the main idea. The middle sentences provide evidence, but the author
does not analyze it. And the last sentence does not link the paragraph to anything.
Here is an example of the same paragraph using the MEAL model. The blue text is new.
Lee’s first blunder was misusing his cavalry before the battle. On June 23rd,
Lee allowed his cavalry commander J.E.B. Stuart to take his best cavalry units,
leave the army’s main body, and ride around the Federal army.
1
Lee did not
trust the remaining cavalry units and did not use them to scout ahead of the
army. Consequently, Lee had little intelligence about Federal movements and
local terrain. On July 1st, two of Lee’s corps stumbled into Federal cavalry
northwest of Gettysburg.
2
Neither the corps commanders nor Lee knew how
much of the Federal army they were fighting or whether the terrain was
favorable for a battle. Without effective cavalry, Lee was drawn into battle with
an information disadvantage.
————
1
Arthur and Ballard, Gettysburg Staff Ride, 4–5.
2
Sears, Gettysburg, 197–202.
The revised paragraph is much more effective. The first sentence clearly states the main idea.
Then, after discussing Lee misusing his cavalry between June 23rd and July 1st, an analysis
sentence discusses the consequences of Lee’s decisions. The analysis helps the reader appreciate
the second piece of evidence—how Lee stumbled into battle without knowing much about the
enemy or terrain. Finally, the last sentence links back to the thesis by discussing how Lee’s
misuse of cavalry contributed to the battle’s outcome.
The figure below shows how the argument above aligns with the essay structure discussed
earlier.
Main idea
Analysis
Linkage to
thesis
31
Figure 9. Argument organized within essay structure
Paragraph Transitions
Paragraph transitions signal a change from one paragraph to the next. Transitions help the reader
understand how two paragraphs (ideas) are related. Importantly, a logical main body structure
simplifies the task of creating paragraph transitions (Chapter 4 discusses logical main body
structures). When paragraphs appear in a logical order, signaling the logic with transitions is
straightforward.
Signal Words
Signal words make simple but effective paragraph transitions.
Table 5. Signal words
To signal this relationship…
…use these signal words.
Time or sequence
First…second…third,
initially…next…finally, simultaneously,
subsequently, beforehand, afterward
Continuation or additional support
Moreover, further, furthermore,
additionally, also,
Compare
Also, likewise, similarly, just as,
Contrast
However, yet, nevertheless, in
contrast, still, conversely
Cause and effect
Thus, hence, consequently, therefore,
so, as a result
Example
For instance, for example, in fact,
specifically, to illustrate
Below is an example of signal word transitions. Using first to open the first paragraph makes
second a natural transition to the second one.
32
First, Lee put his army at a disadvantage before the battle by misusing his
cavalry.…[middle sentences]…Without effective cavalry, Lee was drawn into
battle with an information disadvantage.
Second, Lee failed to seize key terrain on July 1st. After intense fighting
throughout the morning…
Transition Phrases
Transition phrases appear in the topic sentence of the second paragraph. Transition phrases refer
to information in the previous paragraph before introducing the main idea of the next one.
Lee put his army at a disadvantage before the battle by misusing his
cavalry.…[middle sentences]…Without effective cavalry, Lee was drawn into
battle with an information disadvantage.
Lee compounded his initial disadvantage by failing to seize key terrain on July
1st. After intense fighting throughout the morning…
Transition Sentences
Using an entire sentence as a transition is workable but rarely necessary. Signal words and
transition phrases are as effective but more concise. In the example below, the first sentence of
the second paragraph works as a transition. However, it is wordy and pushes the main idea of the
second paragraph into the second sentence.
Lee put his army at a disadvantage before the battle by misusing his
cavalry.…[middle sentences]…Without effective cavalry, Lee was drawn into
battle with an information disadvantage.
Misusing his cavalry was only the first of Lee’s blunders. His second was
failing to seize key terrain on July 1st. After intense fighting throughout the
morning…
A common mistake is transitioning out of one paragraph using the topic sentence of the next
paragraph. Here is an example:
Lee put his army at a disadvantage before the battle by misusing his
cavalry.…[middle sentences]…Without effective cavalry, Lee was drawn into
battle with an information disadvantage. Lee’s next mistake was failing to seize
key terrain on July 1st.
After intense fighting throughout the morning…
The last sentence of the first paragraph, although intended as a transition, merely confuses the
reader. It disrupts the conclusion of the first paragraph by introducing a new, unexpected idea
(failing to seize key terrain). It also robs the next paragraph of its topic sentence. Avoid this
mistake.
33
CHAPTER 6
E
DIT
Clutter is the disease of American writing.50F
51
—William Zinsser
Writing standards to focus on when editing:
Style
• Write clearly so the text is easy to read and understand.
• Prefer clear, concise sentences.
• Prefer simple words and omit unnecessary words.
• Prefer active voice.
• Maintain a professional tone—formal but conversational and confident.
Correctness
• Use conventional punctuation, spelling, and grammar.
• Cite all sources, and format citations correctly.
Figure 10. Editing and the writing process
Editing focuses on small changes to phrases, sentences, and words. The goal of editing is clear
writing that communicates meaning without ambiguity. Clear writing tends to be simple and
concise—simple words arranged in short, direct sentences that get to the point.
51
Zinsser, On Writing Well, 6.
34
Editing for Style
Style is the way a writer expresses ideas. Effective style is clear, simple, and concise, and as a
result, effortless to read. In contrast, poor style is confusing, complicated, and wordy. The reader
must work to understand the writing.
Style results from the writer’s choice of words, sentence structure, phrasing, and tone. The Army
writing style urges writers to choose short words, use active voice, and write short sentences.51F
52
The professional writing style described in this chapter builds on the Army writing style. It
prefers clear, concise sentences, active voice, simple words, and a professional tone—formal but
conversational and confident.
The example below shows how style choices affect length, complexity, and clarity. The original
passage uses an academic style. The rewritten passage, which draws on the professional style
described in this guide, conveys the same meaning as the original but is shorter, simpler, and
clearer.
Academic style
Professional style
This perspective is intended to serve as a
primer that outlines in general terms how the
Russian military would conduct combat
operations in the event of a high-intensity
conflict with a capable peer or near-peer
adversary. The discussion here blends how
Russian theorists and leaders have written
about modern warfare with demonstrated
Russian capabilities and history. Russia has
shown the ability to tailor its combat
operations to specific operational and
strategic requirements. The Russian military
does not have one standard way of conducting
operations; rather, Russia likely has
developed a series of contingencies for
strategic planning, based on several variables
like correlation of forces, military potential of
opposing forces, strategic geopolitical
context, escalation potential, and others.
How would the Russian military fight a high-
intensity war against a capable enemy?
Examining Russian history, current
capabilities, and recent writing on modern
warfare suggests that the Russians do not
have a standard way of fighting. Instead, they
tailor their approach to strategic and
operational requirements. As a result, the
Russians have developed multiple
contingencies based on potential enemies,
strategic context, escalation potential, and
other key factors.
Source of original: Boston and Massicot, “The Russian Way of Warfare,” 1.
Below is another example of contrasting writing styles. The original passage—a news report
written in 1910—uses a baroque style that prefers elaborate, figurative language. The rewritten
passage uses a professional style.
52
Dept. of the Army, Preparing and Managing Correspondence, 7.
35
Baroque style
Professional style
The sky-gazers looked on in astonishment as
the great artificial bird bore down the
heavens. . . Wonderment, surprise, absorption
were written on every visage . . . a machine of
travel that combined the speed of the
locomotive with the comfort of the
automobile, and in addition, speed through an
element until now navigated only by the
feathered kind. It was, in truth, the poetry of
motion, and its appeal to the imagination was
evident in every upturned face.
The amazed crowd watched the airplane
descend. This machine would allow people to
travel in speed and comfort. But more
astonishing, it would let them fly—something
most people had only imagined.
Source of original: Mowbray, Airships, 379
Clarity
Clarity is the most important stylistic goal of professional
writing. Clear writing is easy for the reader to understand.
Clarity comes from using concrete language, preferring
active voice, and writing cohesive sentences.
Concrete language refers to words, phrases, and
sentences that help the reader imagine what the writing is
about. In contrast, vague or abstract language makes it hard for readers to imagine the ideas the
writer is trying to communicate.
Vague
Concrete
Ridgway’s leadership impacted the
Eighth Army.
Ridgway improved the Eighth Army’s
fighting spirit.
Napoleon had a lot of leadership
experience.
Napoleon had ten years of leadership
experience.
The S4 is working the fuel problem.
The S4 ordered extra deliveries to fix
the fuel problem.
Clichés are worse than vague language. While vague language makes it hard for the reader to
visualize the writer’s idea, clichés cause the reader to visualize something else entirely.
Finding the enemy will be like finding a needle in a haystack.
The phrase “a needle in a haystack” makes the reader imagine rummaging through a stack of hay
instead of thinking about finding the enemy. Instead of clichés, use concrete language.
53
McCloskey, Economical Writing, 56
The first duty in writing a sentence
is to make it clear.52F
53
—Dierdre McCloskey
36
Cliché
Concrete
Finding the enemy will be like finding
a needle in a haystack.
Finding the enemy will be difficult.
This essay takes a deep dive into the
Army’s command and control
doctrine.
This essay analyzes the Army’s
command and control doctrine.
She thinks outside the box.
She thinks creatively.
We need a ballpark figure.
We need an estimate.
Hyperbole is another type of vague language to avoid. Hyperboles are exaggerated statements
not meant to be taken literally. Instead of hyperbole, use specific, concrete alternatives.
Hyperbole
Concrete
The battalion commander wanted to
kill them.
The battalion commander was angry.
Ridgway was the epitome of military
leadership.
Ridgway was an effective leader.
Captain Jones is a peerless leader with
unlimited potential.
Captain Jones is a skilled leader who
would make an excellent battalion
commander.
Prefer active voice means writing sentences that focus on actors, not actions. Passive voice, in
contrast, focuses on the action instead of the actor. Active voice is usually better than passive
voice because it is more direct, clear, and concise.
Passive voice
Active voice
The high ground was occupied by the
battalion and the attack was defeated.
The battalion occupied the high
ground and defeated the attack.
The operation was planned by Patton.
Patton planned the operation.
Although writers usually prefer active voice, passive voice is sometimes useful for creating
cohesion between sentences (more on this point below).
Writing cohesive sentences involves using words and phrases that make it easy for the reader to
see how sentences are related. Recall that cohesion describes how well the elements of an essay
are connected and “hold together.” To create cohesion, writers present information from old to
new, use signal words, use parallel construction, and use passive voice appropriately.
Presenting information from old to new means putting information the reader already knows at
the beginning of a sentence and information the reader does not yet know at the end.
37
The strongest theoretical influence on American civil-military relations comes
from Prussian theorist Carl von Clausewitz’s theory of war.
Clausewitz argues that war comprises three elements: a state’s government,
military, and people.
Clausewitz’s tripartite theory of war underpins the institutional approach to
civil-military relations.
The institutional approach assumes that the interactive relationships between
the government, the military, and the public have important implications for
national security and domestic politics.
These implications include…
Adapted from: Lythgoe, The Soldier and the Citizen, 6-7.
Using signal words also creates cohesion by showing how sentences are related to each other.
Recall that signal words show a logical relationship between two elements.
Without signal words
With signal words
The French commander ordered a
counterattack. The Germans occupied
a key ridge near Bulson. The
counterattack failed.
The French commander ordered a
counterattack. However, the Germans
occupied a key ridge near Bulson. As
a result, the counterattack failed.
The French Army’s methodical battle
doctrine cast armor in a supporting
role to the infantry. The counterattack
moved at the pace of a foot march.
The French Army’s methodical battle
doctrine cast armor in a supporting
role to the infantry. Consequently, the
counterattack moved at the pace of a
foot march.
Adapted from Lythgoe, “Controlling Chaos,” 217.
Using parallel construction means using the same grammar structure to show the relationship
between two or more ideas. Parallel construction makes sentences clear, easy to read, and often
more concise.
38
Not parallel
Parallel
The soldiers reached the position,
established a defense, and began
waiting for battle.
The soldiers reached the position,
established a defense, and waited for
battle.
The cadre evaluated the soldiers on
their skill, how tough they were, and
their leadership.
The cadre evaluated the soldiers on
their skill, toughness, and leadership.
At the next staff meeting, we will hold
a discussion of the deployment plan,
whether to revise our standard
operating procedures, and then a draft
deployment order will be developed.
At the next staff meeting, we will
discuss the deployment plan, decide
whether to revise our standard
operating procedures, and draft a
deployment order.
Using passive voice appropriately is another way to write cohesive sentences. Recall that passive
voice puts the action before the actor. Doing so allows the writer to structure the sentence with
the action first. This structure is useful if the last element of the previous sentence (the “old”
information) was an action.
Passive voice / cohesive
Active voice / not cohesive
Unable to retreat, the 20th Maine did
the only thing they could: a desperate
charge with fixed bayonets.
The charge was ordered by a
professor-turned-soldier named Joshua
Chamberlain.
Unable to retreat, the 20th Maine did
the only thing they could: a desperate
charge with fixed bayonets.
Joshua Chamberlain, a professor-
turned-soldier, ordered the charge.
In both examples, the first sentence ends with the bayonet charge. The left passage creates
cohesion by using passive voice to begin the second sentence with old information—the bayonet
charge. In contrast, the right passage is less cohesive because it introduces new information—
Joshua Chamberlain—before the bayonet charge.
39
Simplicity
Simplicity enhances clarity and concision. Simple writing
uses plain language—simple words arranged in short,
direct sentences. Simple language is persuasive because it
is easy to understand. In contrast, complicated language
can frustrate readers, and frustrated readers are hard to
persuade.
Simplicity means avoiding complex words when simple
words will do.
Instead of a complex word…
…use a simple one.
Assistance
Numerous
Initial
Sufficient
Attempt
Utilize
Expedite
Erroneous
Cognizant
Help
Many
First
Enough
Try
Use
Hurry
Wrong
Aware
Simplicity also means preferring short, direct sentences. Long sentences can be confusing and
difficult for the reader to follow. Here is a long, confusing sentence:
Lee, who did not trust the remaining cavalry units and did not use them to scout
ahead of the army, had little intelligence about Federal movements and local
terrain, and as a result, let two of his corps stumble into Federal cavalry
northwest of Gettysburg on July 1st.
Here is the same passage broken into three smaller sentences.
Lee did not trust the remaining cavalry units and did not use them to scout
ahead of the army. Consequently, Lee had little intelligence about Federal
movements and local terrain. As a result, on July 1st, two of Lee’s corps
stumbled into Federal cavalry northwest of Gettysburg.
54
On Writing Well, 6
The secret of good writing is to
strip every sentence to its
cleanest components.53F
54
—William Zinsser
40
Concision
Editing for concision means removing clutter—stripping
out everything but the minimum words necessary to
communicate ideas.
Writers sometimes struggle to distinguish content from
clutter. One way is by asking if a word or phrase is doing
“useful work”.55F
56
Write the sentence with and without the
word or phrase in question. If removing it changes the sentence’s meaning, it is doing useful
work. Keep it. But if removing it does not change the meaning, it is not doing useful work. It is
clutter. Cut it.
Writers make writing concise by omitting needless words, avoiding hedging and “throat
clearing,” and avoiding nominalizations.
“Omit needless words” speaks for itself.5 6F
57
Remove words that are not doing useful work.
Walker’s plan was very risky.
The attack was extremely slow.
Many everyday phrases include needless words. Omit them.
very real
absolutely nothing
generally tend
entirely possible
perfectly normal
general consensus
freely admit
distinct advantage
close proximity
abundantly clear
abject failure
know for a fact
know full well
fully intend
a world of difference
a palpable sense
proven track record
in any way, shape, or
form
as a general rule of
thumb
more often than not
Many “ly” adverbs are needless. Omit them.
The troops fought extremely hard.
Patton’s troopers were definitely better than the enemy.
Underestimating the Egyptians was truly a mistake.
The fighting was intensely fierce.
The regiment was really low on ammunition.
Schwarzkopf was totally committed to battle.
The defenders resisted mightily.
Dayan quickly resolved to counterattack.
55
On Writing, 125.
56
Zinsser, On Writing Well, 15.
57
Strunk and White, The Elements of Style, 30.
I believe the road to hell is paved
with adverbs…54F
55
—Stephen King
41
Avoid using two adjectives or adverbs with similar meanings. Choose the stronger word and
omit the other.
Their response was deliberate and measured.
The tanks quickly and easily bypassed the strong points.
Shorten wordy passages.
Instead of wordy passages…
…use simple, direct language.
Eisenhower took an opportunity to
conduct a rapid assessment of the
problem that he was facing.
Eisenhower assessed the problem.
Cota failed to demonstrate an ability
as the commander to understand the
operational environment he was
operating in.
Cota did not understand the
operational environment.
Avoid starting sentences with hedging, “throat clearing,” and other unnecessary qualifications
that clutter writing and imply the writer lacks confidence.
In my opinion, the counterattack was too slow.
Although some people may disagree, I believe the plan was flawed.
It is clear that the brigade was well-trained.
It is important to remember that US doctrine favors a decentralized approach.
A key aspect of this case that we must not overlook is that the French
outnumbered the Germans.
“An important point to be noted in this context is the fact that the Israeli failure
was not primarily due to technological inadequacy.”57F
58
Nominalizations are verbs turned into nouns. Nominalizations clutter writing because they
require a verb to make sentences work. In the passage below, for example, exploitation—a
nominalization of the verb exploit—requires the verb conduct. Changing exploitation back to a
verb makes the sentence more direct and concise.
Franks conducted an exploitation after his successful attack.
Franks exploited his successful attack.
58
Creveld, Command in War, 230.
42
Below are more examples of nominalizations:
Instead of this nominalization…
…use this verb.
Conduct an attack
Conduct a defense
Make preparations
Make a decision
Take action
Give a response
Bring to an end
Hold a meeting
Make a recommendation
Take into consideration
Have the ability
Attack
Defend
Prepare
Decide
Act
Respond
End
Meet
Recommend
Consider
Can
Balancing Clarity with Simplicity and Concision
The most important goal when editing is clarity. Simplicity and concision should improve
clarity, not diminish it. If simplicity or concision conflicts with clarity, choose clarity.
For example, complex words are sometimes clearer than simpler alternatives. Choose the word
that best communicates the idea but does not require an advanced vocabulary.
Smith was a toxic leader with a bad temper.
________________________ an explosive temper.
________________________ a meteoric temper.
________________________ a murderous temper.
Although bad is the simplest choice in the example above, explosive—a concrete word that most
people know— is better. Meteoric is obscure, and murderous is hyperbole (unless Smith actually
kills people when he gets angry).
A thesaurus is useful for making word choices; Microsoft Word’s built-in thesaurus, OneLook
Thesaurus, and Thesaurus.com are among the best.
As with simplicity, writers must balance concision with clarity. If removing words reduces
clarity, choose the clearer alternative.
Jones analyzed the failure, gathered a team, and attacked the problem.
Jones analyzed the failure, gathered a team, and attacked it.
Replacing the problem with it makes the second sentence more concise. However, the change
confuses the meaning. What is Jones attacking? The first sentence is longer but clearer.
43
French commanders, unlike their German opponents, had to wait for written
orders before acting. As a result, the French counterattack was painfully slow.
The writer could omit painfully to make this passage more concise. However, keeping it gives a
clearer sense that the French having to wait for orders put them at a severe disadvantage against
the faster Germans.
Ukraine fought surprisingly well against Russia.
Ukraine fought well against Russia.
Again, the writer could make this passage more concise by omitting surprisingly. However, it is
doing useful work. Surprisingly communicates that when Russia invaded Ukraine in 2022, few
people expected Ukraine to fight as well as it did. Omitting it changes the meaning.
Tone
Tone refers to the writer’s attitude toward the content and the reader.58F
59
Professionals strike a
professional tone by using language that is formal but conversational and confident.
Formal
Use formal, professional language. Professional language aims for a middle ground between the
informality of everyday conversation and the excessive formality of much academic and
professional writing. For example, the three sentences below say the same thing using different
tones. The first alternative is wordy and vague, while the third is too informal. The second
alternative is concrete and precise.
The division commander decided to go in a different direction with the brigade.
The division commander relieved the brigade commander.
The division commander canned the brigade commander.
Avoid contractions (can’t, won’t, didn’t) unless they appear in quotations. Contractions are too
casual for professional writing.
Avoid slang:
Instead of slang…
…use concrete words.
Azimuth check
Come up on the net
Beans and bullets
Pop smoke
Green-suiter
Review
Talk
Supplies
Leave
Servicemember
59
Ober, Contemporary Business Communication, 134.
44
Conversational
Write as if having a conversation with a professional colleague. Treat the reader as an intellectual
equal. Avoid over-explaining. Instead, give the reader credit for understanding the conventions
of everyday conversation. For example, a writer who asserts that “Patton attacked from the
south” should assume the reader understands that Patton’s unit attacked from the south, not
Patton alone.
Confident
Confident writing is powerful and persuasive.
Following the principles this section has
already covered will contribute to a confident
tone. Avoid starting sentences with hedging or
“throat clearing” phrases that make the writer
seem unsure: in my opinion, I think, I suppose,
etc. Also, avoid qualifying words that convey
lack of confidence: probably, typically, most
likely, etc.
Confident writing demands boldness. Unnecessary hedging, throat clearing, and qualification
clutter writing and erode the reader’s trust.60F
61
Readers will not accept the arguments of a writer
who seems unsure of themself. Write boldly and confidently.
60
Zinsser, On Writing Well, 70.
61
Zinsser, 70.
Don’t say you were a bit confused and sort of
tired and a little depressed and somewhat
annoyed. Be confused. Be tired. Be
depressed. Be annoyed. Don’t hedge your
prose with little timidities. Good writing is lean
and confident.59F
60
—William Zinsser
45
CHAPTER 7
P
UBLISH
Mechanics come last. It is important to the writer, once he has discovered what
he has to say, that nothing get between him and his reader. He must break only
those traditions of written communication which would obscure his meaning.61F
62
—Don Murray
Writing standards to focus on before publishing:
Substance
• Write to achieve the purpose.
Correctness
• Format documents correctly.
• Cite all sources, and format citations correctly.
Figure 11. Publishing and the writing process
The last activity of the writing process is publishing—making the writing available to the reader.
In some cases, publishing includes making the writing available to an audience (submitting an
article to a professional journal, for example). Often, however, publishing is simply submitting
the writing to the commander (or professor) who assigned it.
Proofreading
Proofreading for errors is the final step before publishing or turning in written work. Techniques
for effective proofreading include:
62
Murray, The Essential Don Murray, 6.
46
• Let the paper “rest” for a day or two after the final edit.
• Read the paper aloud to hear errors (some word processors have read-aloud tools).
• Read the paper one sentence at a time from end to beginning. This technique focuses the
writer on one sentence at a time rather than the big ideas.
• Software aids like Grammarly, Hemingway Editor, The Writer’s Diet and Microsoft
Editor can be useful for proofreading. Still, these tools do not always recommend sound
changes. Use good judgment; do not assume online tools are always correct.
Submitting
Things to check before publishing an essay:
The essay accomplishes the purpose of writing.
The introduction and conclusion agree.
The essay meets administrative requirements (e.g., word count).
The author’s name (or identification number) is on the paper.
The document is correctly formatted.
The file type is correct (some CGSC professors may ask for a PDF).
All sources are cited.
Citations are complete and accurate.
Turn in the essay using the directed method (Blackboard? Email? Hard copy?).
47
APPENDIX A
F
ORMATTING
When formatting standards exist, staff officers must follow them. An improperly formatted
product makes the reader assume the author is sloppy, and commanders will not trust sloppy
authors with important work. Following established standards helps staff officers establish a
reputation for paying attention to details and producing quality work.
Formatting guidelines vary by product, organization, and audience. Some guidelines are well
known and widely followed. For example, all Army organizations format correspondence
according to Army Regulation 25–50 Preparing and Managing Correspondence. Other
formatting guidelines are found in local regulations, specified in organizational procedures, or
left to the author’s discretion.
Fonts
The Army and the CGSC prefer Arial (sans serif) and Times New Roman (serif). Serif fonts
have lines or tapers (sometimes called feet and tails) at the ends of the letterform (Figure 12). In
contrast, sans serif fonts feature a letterform with a uniform width and no serifs.
Serif
Sans serif
T
T
Figure 12. Serif and sans serif letterforms
Arial is a sans serif font used for most staff products (e.g., information papers and memoranda).
Arial gives documents a clean, modern, professional appearance. It is suitable (and often
required) for short documents and staff papers. Arial also works well in presentations. Simple
lines and uniform width make Arial letters appear crisp and clear when displayed on a large
screen.
Times New Roman is a serif font preferred for longer, text-laden products such as essays and
white papers. Most readers find serif fonts like Times New Roman easier to read than sans serif
48
fonts.62F
63
However, Times New Roman is a poor choice for presentations because serif fonts are
not as sharp as sans serif fonts on large screens.
Some products combine Arial and Times New Roman to take advantage of the contrast between
them. Army doctrine and this guide are examples. However, staff officers rarely need to mix
fonts except when writing doctrine, training, or administrative publications.63F
64
Avoid mixing
fonts in routine staff products and academic papers.
Additionally, avoid script and decorative fonts in documents and presentations. Both give
products an amateurish appearance and can be difficult to read.
For academic essays, the CGSC requires 12-point Times New Roman font which, along with
double-spaced lines, creates space for grading marks and comments. However, for other text-
laden professional products (e.g., white papers), 11-point Times New Roman is a good choice
that keeps pages compact yet readable.
There is no single best font for all products. If standards exist, follow them. Otherwise, pick a
font that best communicates the message in a neat, professional way.
Staff Products
Use the format specified in the appropriate reference for staff products:
Table 6. Staff product references
Staff product(s)
Reference(s)
Correspondence (memoranda
and letters)
Army Regulation 25–50 Preparing and
Managing Correspondence
Executive summaries,
decision memoranda, and
information papers
HQDA Policy Notice 25-52 Staff Action
Process Correspondence Policies or TRADOC
Regulation 1-11 Staff Procedures.
Point papers
TRADOC Regulation 1-11 Staff Procedures
Staff studies and decision
papers:
Commander and Staff Organization and
Operations (FM 6-0)
Operations orders, plans, and
running estimates
Planning and Orders Production (FM 5-0)
White papers
No prescribed Army standard.
63
Merriam-Webster, Inc. Merriam-Webster’s Manual, 330-331; Dept. of the Army, Design and Production, 23.
64
See DA PAM 25–36 Design and Production of Instructional Publications
49
Academic Papers
For academic papers or assignments without a specified format, use these guidelines:
• Use 8.5 x 11-inch paper with 1-inch margins.
• Use 12-point Times New Roman for the main text; 10-point for footnotes.
• Use a title page.
o Write the paper title about one-third of the way down from the top of the page.
o Write the subtitle (if used) below the title.
o Write the author name or identification number, course number and title, and date
about two-thirds of the way down from the top of the page.
• Place page numbers in the bottom margin, centered. Do not number the title page. Start
page numbering at “1” on the first page of text.
• Use headings and sub-headings as needed for organization and clarity. Distinguish
between levels with alignment (center/left) and emphasis (bold/italics/underline) and case
(headline or sentence). Use any convention that is professional and consistent. Below is
an example:
Level 1: Centered, Bold, Title Case
Indented text starts a new paragraph…
Level 2: Left-aligned, Bold, Title Case
Indented text starts a new paragraph…
Level 3: Left-aligned, Italics, Title Case
Indented text starts a new paragraph…
• Indent paragraphs 0.5 inches. Do not add an extra line between paragraphs.
• Double-space the lines.
• Place one space between sentences.
• Format the bibliography following the Chicago Manual of Style (CMS)
(http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/) and Appendix B of this guide.
The next few pages show an example of a correctly formatted academic essay
Essay Title:
Subtitle
DODIN: 123456789
Course Number: Course Title
August 6, 2022
Subtitle (optional)
Title about 1/3 of the
way down the page
Name or identification
number, course, and date
about 2/3 of the way down
the page
No page number on the
title page
1
This essay discusses the how to format, cite, and submit and submit an academic essay. It
is also an example of a correctly formatted essay. Following this example will help students meet
the CGSC writing standards.64F
1
First, format the essay correctly. Set the page margins at one inch. Use 12-point Times
New Roman font. Indent the first line of each paragraph .5 inches and double-space the lines. Do
not put an extra line between paragraphs. For longer essays, use section headings for
organization and clarity. A properly formatted essay makes a positive first impression.
Next, cite all sources. Use Chicago shortened footnotes and bibliography.65F
2
A shortened
note consists of the author(s), abbreviated title, and page number(s) if necessary.
Put the
bibliography on a new page at the end of the essay. Include entries for all cited sources. Proper
citations avoid plagiarism and strengthen the writer’s arguments.
Finally, turn in the essay. Write the essay title, author’s name or identification number,
the course number and title, and the date on the title page. Submit the essay on Blackboard or
follow alternate instructions from the professor.
These guidelines are straightforward but essential. Using correct format, proper citations,
and proper turn-in procedures ensure that administrative mistakes do not detract from what could
otherwise be an excellent essay.
1
Lythgoe et al., Professional Writing, 2.
2
University of Chicago, Chicago Manual of Style, 14.19, 14.29.
One-inch
margins
Paragraph indent
0.5 inches
Double-
spaced
lines
One line between paragraphs
12-point Times New Roman font
10-point Times New
Roman footnotes
Page numbers centered in the
bottom margin beginning on the
first page of text
2
Bibliography
Lythgoe, Trent J., Allan S. Boyce, Sean N. Kalic, Richard A. McConnell, Mary L. Noll, and
Bruce J. Reider. Professional Writing: The Command and General Staff College Writing
Guide. Fort Leavenworth: US Army Command and General Staff College, 2023.
University of Chicago. The Chicago Manual of Style, 17th Edition. The Chicago Manual of Style
Online, 2017. https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org.
Start the bibliography on
a separate page.
0.5-inch
hanging
indent
Entries single-spaced
One line between
entries
53
APPENDIX B
C
ITATION SUPPLEMENT
The CGSC’s preferred citation style is Chicago shortened footnotes and bibliography as
described in the Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) section 14. This appendix is not a
comprehensive citation guide and does not replace CMS. Instead, it provides a quick reference
for common citation tasks. It also describes how to cite unusual military and CGSC sources.
The CMS shortened notes style requires authors to provide a bibliography with all works cited.
Authors use shortened foot notes throughout the document—including the first note. Since
authors provide full source information in the bibliography, they do not have to duplicate that
information in long notes.
When building citations, the author’s main goal is to provide the reader enough information to
find the cited source.66F
67
The shortened notes and bibliography system is flexible, and authors can
modify its conventions as necessary for unique situations as long as the modifications are logical,
defensible, and consistent throughout the text.
Citation Basics
A citation consists of a superscript note, shortened foot note, and bibliography entry.
In the late 1950s, US Army leaders debated embracing tactical nuclear
weapons.
1
——————————
1
Linn, Elvis’s Army, 83-97.
Bibliography
Linn, Brian McAllister. Elvis’s Army: Cold War GIs and the Atomic Battlefield.
Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2016.
Shortened Footnotes
A shortened note consists of the author’s last name, the title of the work, and if necessary, page
number(s) or other pointing information.
• For works with one to three authors, list them all. For works with four or more authors,
list the first author’s name followed by “et al.”
• Use the full title if it is four words or less. For longer titles, abbreviate the title (two to
four words).
67
University of Chicago, Chicago Manual of Style, 14.1, 14.4.
Superscript note number after punctuation
Shortened foot note
Bibliographic entry
54
• When citing an entire source, page numbers are not required. When citing only a portion
of a source, include page numbers or other directing information.
Huntington argues that professionalism is the key to maximizing military
effectiveness while minimizing the threat to the state.
1
However, Feaver
counters that Huntington’s theory of professionalism fails to explain observed
patterns of civil-military relations.
2
——————————
1
Huntington, The Soldier and the State.
2
Feaver, “The Civil-Military Problematique.”
• When citing the same source consecutively, omit the title in the second reference. Do not
use ibid.
——————————
1
Linn, Elvis’s Army, 83-97.
2
Linn, 108-109.
Note Number Placement
Paraphrases and Summaries
Place a note at the end of the first sentence that paraphrases or summarizes the source. When
referring to one source for multiple sentences, do not place notes after each sentence. Instead,
make it clear that subsequent sentences refer to the same source.
When citing multiple sources in the same sentence, place a single note at the end of the sentence.
In the foot note, enter a shortened note for each source in the order they appear in the sentence.
Separate the notes with a semicolon.
Here is an example:
Mental agility is critical for Army commanders in large-scale combat. The high tempo and
lethality of large-scale combat create rapid change.
1
Yet, despite its importance, Army
doctrine does not examine mental agility in depth. Army doctrine contends that leaders
develop mental agility through study and experience.
2
However, it describes neither how
mental agility works nor the kinds of studies and experiences needed to develop it.
———————————
1
Lundy and Creed, “The Return of FM 3-0,” 15.
2
Dept of the Army, Army Leadership, p. 4–1; Dept of the Army, Offense and Defense, p. 1–4.
Source: Lythgoe, “Mental Agility in Combat,” 3.
Author claim
Summary of Lundy and Creed cited in note 1.
Author’s second claim.
Summary of two Army doctrine publications—both cited in note 2.
This sentence makes it clear that it refers to the source cited in note 2.
55
Quotations
Place the note number at the end of the quotation. Use quotation marks for short quotations of
four lines or less. Use block formatting (single-spaced text indented 0.5 inches) for quotations of
five lines or more.
Students of warfare have long puzzled over how to develop coup d'œil. Napoleon
Bonaparte argues that study and experience are the keys. “Commanders-in-chief are to be
guided by their own experience or genius…generalship is acquired only by experience and the
study of the campaigns of all great captains…”.
1
Army doctrine offers a similar
recommendation:
[Army] leaders train for various tactical situations, learn to recognize their important
elements, and practice decision making under realistic conditions. They develop these
abilities through years of professional military education, self-study, practical training,
and operational experiences. These experiences sharpen the intuitive faculties required
to solve tactical problems.
2
That modern doctrine offers little more than Napoleon emphasizes both the enduring
significance of coup d'œil and how little progress has been made in unlocking the puzzle of its
underlying principles and processes.
———————————
1
Colegrove, Distant Voices, 19.
2
Dept of the Army, Offense and Defense, p. 1-4.
Source: Lythgoe, “Cognition and Coup d'œil,” 100.
Bibliography Entries
Bibliography entries consist of the author(s), title of work, and facts of publication separated by
periods.67F
68
List the entries alphabetically by author last name. For works with multiple authors,
invert (last name first) only the first author. Capitalized titles of works headline-style. Italicize
the titles of larger works (e.g., books and journals); use quotation marks for smaller works (e.g.,
articles and chapters); do not use quotation marks for websites, blogs, or social media.
68
University of Chicago, Chicago Manual of Style, 14.20-23.
Inline quotation
Block quotation
56
Citing Common Sources
Below are examples of shortened notes and bibliographic entries for common sources. Refer to
the CMS for additional details.
Book
Hastings, The Korean War, 201.
Hastings, Max. The Korean War. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2015.
Chapter of an Edited Book
McMaster, “Adaptive Leadership,” 215.
McMaster, H. R. “Adaptive Leadership: Harold G. ‘Hal’ Moore.” In The Art of Command:
Military Leadership from George Washington to Colin Powell, edited by Harry S.
Laver and Jeffery J. Matthews, 209–30. Lexington: The University Press of
Kentucky, 2008.
Print Journal Article
O’Connell, “A Simplified Framework,” 185
O’Connell, Patricia K. “A Simplified Framework for 21st Century Leader Development.”
The Leadership Quarterly 25, no. 2 (April 2014): 183-203.
Online Journal Article
Bazin, “Clausewitz's Military Genius"
Bazin, Aaron. "Clausewitz’s Military Genius and the #Human Dimension.” The Strategy
Bridge, December 11, 2014. https://thestrategybridge.org/the-
bridge/2015/12/28/clausewitzs- military-genius-and-the-human-dimension.
Report
Riley et al., Annual Survey, 10-12.
Riley, Ryan P., Kaitlyn Mihalco, Jennifer Harvey, Jon J. Fallesen, Kate Lambourne, and
Matt McDonough. 2018 Center for Army Leadership Annual Survey of Army
Leadership. Fort Leavenworth: US Army, May 2019.
Website
Moore and Galloway, “Lz Xray Day 1.”
Moore, Harold G., and Joseph L. Galloway. “Lz Xray Day 1.” The Battle That Changed
the War in Vietnam. Accessed May 16, 2023. https://lzxray.com/lz-xray-day-1/.
57
Citing Uncommon Sources
This section discusses unusual CGSC and military sources that CMS does not address.
Course Readings
Cite the author(s) if available. If not, list the academic department or the US Army Command
and General Staff College as the author.
Unpublished Reading
If a course reading is not published outside the course, use the convention below:
Last, First. “Title of Reading.” In Course Number and Title. Fort Leavenworth: US Army
Command and General Staff College, Year.
Bradbeer, “Ridgeway Takes Command,” 15.
Bradbeer, Thomas. “Ridgway Takes Command.” In L400: The Art of Command. Fort
Leavenworth: US Army Command and General Staff College, 2022.
If no author is listed, cite the department or organization that sponsors the course as the author.
Dept. of Command and Leadership, “The 2nd Armored Brigade,” 5.
Department of Command and Leadership. “The 2nd Armored Brigade Combat Team.” In
L400: The Art of Command. Fort Leavenworth: US Army Command and General
Staff College, 2022.
Published Reading
If a course reading is published outside the course, cite the original publisher. If the CGSC lesson
uses a reformatted version, cite either one. However, since the page numbers in the original work
differ from the reformatted work, choose one and be consistent.
McMaster, “Adaptive Leadership,” 215.
McMaster, H. R. “Adaptive Leadership: Harold G. ‘Hal’ Moore.” In The Art of Command:
Military Leadership from George Washington to Colin Powell, edited by Harry S.
Laver and Jeffery J. Matthews, 209–30. Lexington: The University Press of
Kentucky, 2008.
McMaster, “Adaptive Leadership,” 6.
McMaster, H. R. “Adaptive Leadership: Harold G. ‘Hal’ Moore.” In L400: The Art of
Command. Fort Leavenworth: US Army Command and General Staff College,
2022.
Reprinted Material in a Course Readings Book
Cite the original source followed by “Reprinted in” and the course readings book information.
Use the page number from the course readings book for shortened notes.
Clausewitz, “What is War?” 55.
58
Clausewitz, “What is War?” in On War, 75-89. Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1976. Reprinted in Department of Military History, H100 Book of Readings, 50-61.
Fort Leavenworth: US Army Command and General Staff College, 2022.
Class Lectures
Use caution when citing class lectures and slides. If the lecture material references course
readings or other sources, cite them directly or use a secondary citation.
Last, First. “Lecture or Lesson Title.” Course Number and Title. Class lecture at the US Army
Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, lecture date.
Smith, “L403: Adaptive Leadership,” 23.
Smith, John. “L403: Adaptive Leadership.” L400: Art of Command. Class lecture at the US
Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, January 5, 2022.
Computer-Based Instruction
As with in-class lectures, use caution when citing computer-based instruction modules. Cite
course readings and other sources directly when appropriate. Use the lesson author, module
author or department as the author. Include the abbreviation CBI in parentheses after the course
title.
Last, First. “Lecture or Lesson Title.” Course Number and Title (CBI). US Army Command and
General Staff College. Access date. URL.
Dept. of Distance Education, “L403: Adaptive Leadership,” 23.
Department of Distance Education. “L403: Adaptive Leadership.” L400: Art of Command
(CBI). US Army Command and General Staff College. Accessed January 5, 2022.
https://www.cbi-url.mil.
Federal Statues
Name of Statute (optional), Title U.S.C. § section number (year published).
Title 10 U.S.C. § 101
Armed Forces, Title 10 U.S.C. § 101 (2018).
• Do not italicize the name or title of the statute.
• US code is codified every six years (the latest is 2018). Refer to the version consulted.
• The “§” symbol means “section” and “§§” is the plural form.
• See The Indigo Book C.R.16 for additional information.
Guest Speakers, Panels, and Similar Events
Last, First. “Title of Event.” Type of event, Location of event, Date of event.
Smith, “The Evolution.”
Smith, Jane. “The Evolution of American Civil-Military Relations.” Speech, Fort
Leavenworth, January 5, 2022.
59
Military Publications
Department. Title of Publication (Identification Number). Place of Publication: Publisher, Year.
DOI or URL.
• List the service department (e.g., Department of the Navy) for the author and the
publisher. For joint publications, list Joint Chiefs of Staff.
• List Washington DC as the publisher location.
• List the publication title followed by the publication number in. Abbreviate the
publication type (e.g., APD rather than Army Doctrine Publication).
• Some military publications have unusual page numbers that readers might confuse with a
page range. For example, page 1-4 refers to chapter 1 page four, not pages 1 through 4.
To avoid confusion, use the abbreviation p. for one page, or pp. and the word “through”
for a page range.
o One page: Dept. of the Army, Army Leadership, p.1-4.
o Page range: Dept. of the Army, Army Leadership, pp.1-4 through 1-5.
Dept. of the Army, Army Leadership, pp.1-4 through 1-5.
Department of the Army. Army Leadership and the Profession (ADP 6-22). Washington
DC: Department of the Army, 2019.
https://armypubs.army.mil/epubs/DR_pubs/DR_a/ARN20039-ADP_6-22-001-
WEB- 0.pdf.
Dept. of the Army, Preparing and Managing Correspondence, 4.
Department of the Army. Preparing and Managing Correspondence (AR 25-50).
Washington DC: Department of the Army, 2020.
https://armypubs.army.mil/epubs/DR_pubs/DR_a/ARN32225-AR_25-50-003-
WEB-6.pdf
Joint Chiefs of Staff, Cyberspace Operations, p. III-3.
Joint Chiefs of Staff. Cyberspace Operations (JP 3-12). Washington DC: Joint Chiefs of
Staff, 2018.
https://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Doctrine/pubs/jp3_12.pdf?ver=2018-07-
16-134954-150
60
Secondary Citations
Writers use secondary citations when they find a source another author has cited, but the writer
cannot access the original source. To create the secondary citation, cite the original work
followed by “Quoted in” and the secondary source (if not a direct quote, use “Cited in”). Include
bibliography entries for both sources.
Here is an example:
Napoleon said to his staff officers, “Gentlemen, examine this ground carefully,
it is going to be a battlefield; you will have a part to play upon it.”
1
———————————
1
Ségur, Histoire et Mémoire, 279. Quoted in Chandler, The Campaigns of Napoleon, 413.
Bibliography
Chandler, David G. The Campaigns of Napoleon. New York: Macmillan, 1966.
Ségur, Philippe-Paul comte de. Histoire et Mémoire. Paris, 1836.
The quote in the example appears in Chandler’s The Campaigns of Napoleon. However,
Chandler cites the 1836 book Histoire et Mémoire by Philippe-Paul comte de Ségur. Since this
book is unusually old and written in French, it is impractical to find and cite it directly. Thus, a
secondary citation is appropriate.
Original source
Secondary source
61
APPENDIX C
S
TYLE AND USAGE SUPPLEMENT
The CGSC prefers Chicago style and usage conventions. This appendix is a quick reference for
common style errors and misconceptions, as well as military-specific situations that deviate from
Chicago style or that CMS does not address.
General Conventions
Acronyms
Spell out first, then abbreviate. Do not capitalize the original phrase except for proper nouns. Do
not use periods between letters.
commanding general (CG); Army leader requirements model (ALRM); diplomatic,
information, military, and economic (DIME); military decision-making process (MDMP)
However, use periods for personal names.
H.R. McMaster; W.E.B. DuBois
Familiar acronyms do not need to be spelled out first.
US; UN; NASA; NATO
Do not follow the acronym with word(s) the acronym stands for.
The staff executed the MDMP process.
The class covered the ALRM model.
Capitalization
Chicago style advocates sparse capitalization, sometimes called “down style.”68F
69
Capitalize only
proper nouns, and in some cases, terms derived from or associated with proper nouns.
Army Regulation 25-50 directs these conventions for internal Army correspondence:
Capitalize the word “Soldier” when it refers to a US Army Soldier.
Capitalize the word “Family” when it refers to US Army Family or Family members.
Capitalize the word “Civilian” when it refers to Army Civilians and is used in
conjunction with Soldier and/or Family.
Non-English Names
Drop particles (e.g., von, van, de) when referring to people by last name unless the common
convention is otherwise.
Carl von Clausewitz; Clausewitz;
Charles de Gaulle; de Gaulle
69
University of Chicago, Chicago Manual of Style, 8.1.
62
Numbers
Spell out numbers from zero to nine (including first to ninth). Use numerals for 10 and above,
but use all numerals when numbers above and below 10 appear in the same sentence (see units
below for use of numerals in units).
The staff developed three courses of action.
There were 16 brigades in Iraq.
The unit began with only 9 people, but in 6 months, it had over 100.
Spell out large rounded numbers.
There are more than one million Soldiers in the US Army.
Use all numerals if it makes writing clearer (discussing quantitative data, for example).
Only 5% of Soldiers took the survey.
Do not start a sentence with numerals.
Fifty-nine soldiers took the test, but only 51 passed.
Point of View and Pronouns
When authors refer to themselves, they should use the first person, Self-reference in the third
person is a dated practice and sounds unnatural.69F
70
In this essay, the author argues…
In this essay, I argue…
The researcher analyzed three cases.
I analyzed three cases.
Avoid using the second person in academic writing.
You need good leadership.
Armies need good leadership.
Second person is appropriate when writing to a specific person (e.g., staff correspondence).
Third person is awkward and excessively formal.70F
71
I recommend the colonel attend.
I recommend you attend.
Gender-Neutral Language
Do not use he to refer to a person of unspecified gender. Instead, use the gender-neutral language
CMS recommends.71F
72
Alternatively, use they and related words (them, their, theirs, etc.) to refer
to a single person where gender is unspecified or unimportant.72F
73
70
University of Chicago, Chicago Manual of Style, FAQ
https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/qanda/data/faq/topics/Usage/faq0158.html
71
See also Dept. of the Army, Preparing and Managing Correspondence, para 1-39.
72
University of Chicago, Chicago Manual of Style, 5.255
73
University of Chicago, 5.48, 5.526. See also FAQ https://www-chicagomanualofstyle-
org.eu1.proxy.openathens.net/book/ed17/part2/ch05/psec048.html.
63
Prepositions and Conjunctions
Contrary to popular belief, writers may start sentences with conjunctions (e.g., and, but, or) and
end sentences with prepositions (e.g., of, on, with).73F
74
Verb Tense
Avoid unnecessary shifts between verb tenses—especially in the same sentence or paragraph.
When the Chinese counterattacked,
UN forces retreat.
When the Chinese counterattacked,
UN forces retreated.
Military Words and Phrases74F
75
battles, campaigns, and operations Capitalize well-known battles, campaigns, and operations,
lowercase otherwise. Do not capitalize the generic terms alone. See also wars.
Battle of Gettysburg; the battle
the Vicksburg Campaign and the Gulf War ground campaign; the campaigns
Operation Chromite; the operation
branches Capitalize when referring to US Army branches, lowercase when referring to job titles.
Infantry branch; the Artillery branch chief
infantry soldier; paratrooper; aviator
cardinal directions Capitalize when referring to a place or region, lowercase otherwise.
the East (as in Eastern Europe or Asian culture); drive east; eastern flank
cavalry Lowercase except in unit names. Do not confuse with Calvary
cavalry operations; 1st Squadron, 7th Cavalry
chief of staff of the Army Lowercase unless it appears before a name.
James C. McConville, the chief of staff of the Army;
Chief of Staff of the Army General James C. McConville
commander Lowercase except when appearing as a US Navy rank before a name.
the commander; the division commander; Commander Smith, USN
commander in chief Lowercase, not hyphenated.
corps Lowercase unless part of a unit title or referencing the US Army Corps of Engineers or the
US Marine Corps.
III Corps; the corps; corps headquarters
Marine Corps; the Corps
The Army Corps of Engineers; the Corps of Engineers
74
University of Chicago, 5.180, 5.203.
75
Adapted from Dept. of the Army, “WWW.ARMY.MIL Style Guide.”
64
Department of Defense DoD is acceptable on the first reference.
doctrine Lowercase
Army doctrine; joint doctrine
doctrine terms and concepts Lowercase.
the operations process; multi-domain operations (MDO); the military decision-making
process (MDMP); intelligence preparation of the battlefield (IPB)
Family Capitalize when referring to Army Families in internal Army correspondence.
government Capitalize government bodies, departments, bureaus, and offices, but not the
adjectives derived from them.
the US Congress; Congress; congressional record
the UN Security Council; the council meeting
the Department of the Army; the department office
the Army Staff; the staff meeting
Lowercase for generic governmental terms.
the Biden administration; the administration
the federal government; the US government
joint Lowercase unless used as a proper noun as part of a unit.
the joint force; joint doctrine; Joint Task Force Smith; the joint task force
military services Capitalize US military services (departs from Chicago style).
the US Army; the Army
the United States Navy; the Navy
the Marine Corps; the Corps
the US Air Force; the Air Force
nation Lowercase.
service to the nation; US national interests
paratrooper Lowercase.
Pentagon Capitalize when referring to the headquarters of the DOD.
president Lower case except when used before the president’s name.
President Biden; the president; see also commander in chief
ranks Lower case except when they appear where the first name would normally be.
Major General Garcia; the general; the commanding general
Command Sergeant Major Ash; the command sergeant major
Sergeant Peters; the platoon sergeant
Private Smith; the private
officers; warrant officers; non-commissioned officers; junior enlisted
65
Soldier Capitalize when referring to US Army Soldiers in internal Army correspondence.
the US Army has many Soldiers; all armies need good soldiers
Special Forces Capitalize where referring to the Army branch. Otherwise, use lowercase special
operations forces.
a Special Forces officer; a mission for special operations forces
theories, models, and frameworks Lowercase except when a proper noun is included
theory of relativity; Newton’s first law; ends, ways, and means; Boyd’s OODA loop
units Use numerals for all unit names except those that are usually spelled out. Capitalize proper
unit names, lowercase otherwise.
3rd Battalion, 1st Brigade, 1st Infantry Division; the battalion; the battalion area
2nd Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division; the brigade; brigade headquarters
XVIII Airborne Corps; the corps; the corps command post
First Army; the field army; the army headquarters
Sixth Fleet; fleet headquarters
1st Air Force; the air force commander
wars Capitalize major wars and revolutions but not the generic terms alone.
the American Revolution; the revolution
The Korean War; the war
Do not capitalize recent or ongoing conflicts when a historical convention is not yet established.
the Syrian civil war; the Russia-Ukraine war
66
This page intentionally blank.
67
APPENDIX D
W
RITING ASSESSMENT AND RUBRIC (FORM 1009W)
Name
Assignment
Score
A
B
C
U
90-100
Superior
80-89
Satisfactory
70-79
Marginal
0-69
Unsatisfactory
Substance
Organization
Style
Correctness
68
Rubric
A
Superior
B
Satisfactory
C
Marginal
U
Unsatisfactory
Substance
Fully achieves the purpose of writing.
Coherently advances a thesis.
Supports the thesis with strong
evidence and sound reasoning.
Achieves the purpose of the essay with
minor shortfalls.
Advances a generally coherent thesis.
Supports the thesis with credible
evidence and mostly sound reasoning.
Partially achieves the purpose of
writing.
Struggles to advance a thesis due to
lack of coherence.
Struggles to support the thesis due to
weak evidence or flawed reasoning.
Fails to achieve the purpose of writing.
Incoherent; fails to advance a thesis.
Fails to support the thesis due to lack
of evidence or severely flawed
reasoning.
Organization
Introduction, main body, and
conclusion are clear and effective.
States the thesis early and clearly.
Major sections and paragraphs
arranged in a logical order.
Paragraphs well-
organized around one
idea.
Introduction, main body, and
conclusion are effective.
States the thesis.
Major sections and paragraphs
arranged in a generally logical order.
Most paragraphs well-organized
around one idea.
Introduction, main body, and
conclusion are ineffective.
Thesis is vague.
Arrangement of major sections and
paragraphs often lacks logic.
Paragraphs are often unorganized or
contain multiple ideas.
Introduction, main body, and
conclusion are missing.
Thesis is missing.
Arrangement of major sections and
paragraphs is confusing and illogical.
Nearly all paragraphs are poorly
organized and unfocused.
Style
Text is clear; easy to read and
understand.
Sentences are clear and concise.
Prefers simple words; omits
unnecessary words.
Prefers active voice; uses passive
voice appropriately.
Tone is appropriate; formal but
conversational and confident.
Text is generally readable and
understandable.
Sentences and are generally clear and
concise.
Mostly prefers simple words; omits
unnecessary words.
Prefers active voice; occasionally uses
inappropriate passive voice.
Tone is generally appropriate.
Text is often difficult to read and
understand.
Sentences are often unclear
or lengthy.
Often uses unnecessarily complicated
words or unneeded words.
Frequently uses inappropriate passive
voice.
Tone is often inappropriate.
Text is often impossible to understand.
Unclear, lengthy sentences
predominate.
Word complexity and density make the
text difficult to read.
Frequently uses inappropriate passive
voice to the point of distraction.
Tone is unprofessional or offensive.
Correctness
Nearly free of punctuation, spelling,
and grammar errors.
Document formatted correctly.
Cites all sources using the correct
format.
Minor punctuation, spelling, and
grammar errors that do not interfere
with understanding.
Document formatted generally
correctly.
Cites all sources; citation formatting
has minor errors.
Punctuation, spelling, and grammar
errors sometimes interfere with
understanding.
Document formatting has several
problems.
Cites all sources; citation formatting
has major errors.
Severe punctuation, spelling, and
grammar errors that frequently interfere
with understanding.
Document formatting has several major
problems.
Fails to cite all sources.
69
APPENDIX E
R
ESOURCES
* An Introduction to Writing Across the Curriculum. Colorado State University.
* The Craft of Research. Booth et al.
The Craft of Writing Effectively. Larry McEnerney.
Economical Writing: Thirty-Five Rules for Clear and Persuasive Prose. Dierdre Nansen
McCloskey
* The Essential Don Murray: Lessons from America’s Greatest Writing Teacher. Donald
Morison Murray.
Federal Plain Language Guidelines.
Harvard Library Writing Guide. Harvard University.
Harvard Writing Guides. Harvard University.
* In-Class Writing Exercises. University of North Carolina.
The Little Red Writing Book. Brandon Royal
On Writing Well: The Classic Guide to Writing Nonfiction. William Zinsser.
On Writing: A Memoir Of The Craft. Stephen King
OneLook Dictionary and Thesaurus.
Purdue Online Writing Lab. Purdue University.
The Sense of Style: The Thinking Person’s Guide to Writing in the 21st Century. Steven Pinker.
Writing & Research in the Disciplines. University of Mississippi
Write Tight: Say Exactly What You Mean with Precision and Power. William Brohaugh.
Writing Spaces: Readings on Writing.
Writing Strong Paragraphs. University of Newcastle.
* Writing to Learn. William Zinsser.
Writing Tools: 55 Essential Strategies for Every Writer. Roy Peter Clark.
* Recommended for faculty.
70
This page intentionally blank.
71
REFERENCES
Arthur, Billy, and Ted Ballard. Gettysburg Staff Ride Briefing Book. Washington DC: US Army Center of Military
History, n.d. https://history.army.mil/staffRides/_docs/staffRide_Gettysburg.pdf
.
Boston, Scott, and Dara Massicot. “The Russian Way of Warfare: A Primer.” Santa Monica: RAND Corporation,
December 7, 2017. https://www.rand.org/pubs/perspectives/PE231.html
.
Bracken, Haley. “A Farewell to Arms.” In Encyclopedia Britannica, January 11, 2023.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/A-Farewell-to-Arms-novel
.
Brohaugh, William. Write Tight: Say Exactly What You Mean with Precision and Power. Naperville: Sourcebooks,
Inc., 2007.
Clark, Roy Peter, Writing Tools: 55 Essential Strategies for Every Writer. 10th anniversary edition. New York:
Little, Brown Spark, 2006.
Colegrove, Michael B. Distant Voices: Listening to the Leadership Lessons of the Past. Lincoln: iUniverse, 2005.
Department of the Army. Army Leadership and the Profession (ADP 6-22). Washington, DC: Government Printing
Office, 2019. https://armypubs.army.mil/epubs/DR_pubs/DR_a/ARN20039-ADP_6-22-001-WEB-0.pdf
.
———. Commander and Staff Organization and Operations (FM 6-0). Washington, DC: Government Printing
Office, 2022. https://armypubs.army.mil/epubs/DR_pubs/DR_a/ARN35404-FM_6-0-000-WEB-1.pdf
.
———. Design and Production of Instructional Publications (DA PAM 25-36). Washington DC: Government
Printing Office, 1988. https://armypubs.army.mil/epubs/DR_pubs/DR_a/pdf/web/p25_36.pdf
.
———. Offense and Defense (ADP 3-90). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2019.
https://armypubs.army.mil/epubs/DR_pubs/DR_a/pdf/web/ARN18377_ADP%203-
90%20FINAL%20WEB.pdf.
———. Planning and Orders Production (FM 5-0). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2022.
https://armypubs.army.mil/epubs/DR_pubs/DR_a/pdf/web/ARN20305_ADP%205-
0%20FINAL%20WEB.pdf.
———. Preparing and Managing Correspondence (AR 25-50). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office,
2020. https://armypubs.army.mil/epubs/DR_pubs/DR_a/ARN36874-AR_25-50-004-WEB-7.pdf
.
———. Preparing and Managing Correspondence (AR 25-50). Washington DC: Government Printing Office, 2020.
https://armypubs.army.mil/ProductMaps/PubForm/Details.aspx?PUB_ID=1020633
.
———. “WWW.ARMY.MIL Style Guide.” US Army, August 10, 2017.
https://www.army.mil/e2/downloads/rv7/armydotmil_style_guide.pdf
.
Duke University. “Paragraphing: The Meal Plan.” Accessed May 11, 2023.
https://twp.duke.edu/sites/twp.duke.edu/files/file-attachments/meal-plan.original.pdf
Feaver, Peter D. “The Civil-Military Problematique: Huntington, Janowitz, and the Question of Civilian Control.”
Armed Forces & Society 23, no. 2 (1996): 149–78. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095327X9602300203
.
Grohol, John M. “The Psychology of Confirmation Bias.” Psych Central, February 11, 2020.
https://psychcentral.com/blog/the-psychology-of-confirmation-bias
.
Harvard Library. “Writing Guide.” Accessed March 12, 2023. https://library.harvard.edu/writing-guide.
72
Harvard College Writing Center. “Counterargument.” Accessed June 12, 2023.
https://writingcenter.fas.harvard.edu/pages/counter-argument
.
Huntington, Samuel P. The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations. Cambridge:
Belknap Press, 1957.
Irvin, L. Lennie. “What Is ‘Academic’ Writing?” In Writing Spaces: Readings on Writing, edited by Charles Lowe
and Pavel Zemliansky, 1:3–17. West Lafayette: Parlor Press, 2010.
https://wac.colostate.edu/docs/books/writingspaces1/writing-spaces-readings-on-writing-vol-1.pdf
.
Jones, Christine. “Revision and Editing,” January 8, 2021.
https://open.maricopa.edu/english102open/chapter/revision-editing/
.
King, Stephen. On Writing: A Memoir Of The Craft. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000.
Labaree, Robert V. “Evaluating Sources.” Research Guide: Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper.
Accessed March 8, 2023. https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/evaluatesources
.
Lamott, Anne. Bird by Bird: Some Instructions on Writing and Life. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group,
2007.
Linn, Brian McAllister. Elvis’s Army: Cold War GIs and the Atomic Battlefield. Cambridge: Harvard University
Press, 2016.
Lundy, Mike, and Rich Creed. “The Return of U.S. Army Field Manual 3-0, Operations.” Military Review 97, no. 6
(December 2017): 14–21.
Lythgoe, Trent J. “Controlling Chaos: Mission Command in Large-Scale Combat Operations.” In Large-Scale
Combat Operations: The Division Fight, edited by Dennis S. Burket, 1st edition. The Art of Tactics,
volume 1. Fort Leavenworth: Army University Press, 2019.
———. “Coup d’œil and Cognition: How to Build Adaptive Tactical Experts.” Military Review 103, no. 2 (March-
April 2023): 95-107
———. “Mental Agility in Combat: Adaptive Tactical Thinking and the Battle of Goose Green.” In Leadership in
Large-Scale Combat Operations, edited by Kevin Gentzler. Fort Leavenworth: Army University Press,
2023 (forthcoming).
———. “The Soldier and the Citizen: Examining the US Military’s Non-Partisan Norms.” PhD Dissertation,
University of Kansas, 2022.
https://www.proquest.com/openview/62066304df13998709ebcc396e9aeb7d/1?pq-
origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. “Resource Sheet: Claim-Evidence-Reasoning (CER).” Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, n.d.
https://blossoms.mit.edu/sites/default/files/video/download/CER-Resource-
Sheet.pdf.
Maybrow, Jay Henry. Airships and Other Flying Machines. Princeton: National Publishing Company, 1910.
McCloskey, Deirdre Nansen. Economical Writing, Third Edition: Thirty-Five Rules for Clear and Persuasive Prose.
Third edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2019.
McNeill, Katherine L., and Joseph Krajcik. “Inquiry and Scientific Explanations: Helping Students Use Evidence
and Reasoning.” In Science as Inquiry in the Secondary Setting, edited by Julie Luft, Randy L. Bell, and
Julie Gess-Newsome, 121–34. Arlington: NSTA Press, 2008.
73
Merriam-Webster, Inc. Merriam-Webster’s Manual for Writers and Editors. Revised edition. Springfield: Merriam-
Webster, 1998.
Morrison, Toni. What Moves at the Margin: Selected Nonfiction. Edited by Carolyn C. Denard. Illustrated edition.
Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2008.
Murray, Donald Morison. The Essential Don Murray: Lessons from America’s Greatest Writing Teacher. Edited by
Thomas Newkirk and Lisa C. Miller. Portsmouth: Boynton/Cook Publishers, 2009.
Nash, Maryellen. “Quoting, Paraphrasing and Summarizing.” Research Guides: Online Library Workshops,
December 21, 2022. https://nscc.libguides.com/Onlineworkshops/quoting
.
Ober, Scot. Contemporary Business Communication. Third edition. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1998.
Pinker, Steven. The Sense of Style: The Thinking Person’s Guide to Writing in the 21st Century. Reprint edition.
New York: Penguin Books, 2015.
Quiller-Couch, Arthur. “On Style.” On the Art of Writing: Lectures Delivered in the University of Cambridge, 1916.
https://www.bartleby.com/190/12.html
.
Reardon, Carol, and Tom Vossler. The Gettysburg Campaign: June--July 1863. Washington DC: Center of Military
History, United States Army, 2013.
Regent University Writing Lab. “Cohesion and Coherence.” Regent University, n.d.
https://writing.chalmers.se/chalmers-writing-guide/writing-a-text/coherence-cohesion/
.
Royal, Brandon. The Little Red Writing Book. 1st edition. Cincinnati: Writer’s Digest Books, 2007.
Saint Louis University Writing Services. “10 Myths of College Writing.” Saint Louis University, n.d.
https://www.slu.edu/life-at-slu/student-success-center/academic-support/university-writing-
services/pdfs/myths-of-writing.pdf.
Sears, Stephen W. Gettysburg. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2004.
Simundic, Ana-Maria. “Bias in Research.” Biochemia Medica 23, no. 1 (February 15, 2013): 12–15.
https://doi.org/10.11613/BM.2013.003
.
Sprigman et al. The Indigo Book: A Manual of Legal Citation. Public Resource (2016).
https://law.resource.org/pub/us/code/blue/IndigoBook.html#R16
Strunk, William, and E. B. White. The Elements of Style, Fourth Edition. Fourth Edition. Boston: Pearson, 1999.
Thomas, Francis-Noël, and Mark Turner. Clear and Simple as the Truth: Writing Classic Prose - Second Edition.
2nd edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011.
Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, Ninth Edition: Chicago
Style for Students and Researchers. Ninth. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2023.
Tutu, Desmond. “The Second Nelson Mandela Annual Lecture Address.” Speech presented at the Nelson Mandela
Foundation, Johannesburg, November 23, 2004.
https://www.nelsonmandela.org/news/entry/the-second-
nelson-mandela-annual-lecture-address.
University of Arizona Global Campus. “What Is a Scholarly Source and What’s the Importance of Citing One?”
University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center, November 23, 2021.
https://www.uagc.edu/blog/what-is-a-scholarly-source-and-whats-the-importance-of-citing-one
.
74
———. “Writing a Thesis Statement.” University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center. Accessed March 11,
2023. https://writingcenter.uagc.edu/writing-a-thesis
.
University of Chicago. The Chicago Manual of Style, 17th Edition. The Chicago Manual of Style Online, 2017.
https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org
.
University of Mississippi. “Acknowledgement and Response.” Writing & Research in the Disciplines. Accessed
March 7, 2023.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/olemiss-writ250/chapter/acknowledgment-and-
response/.
———. “Body Paragraphs: Introduce, Cite, Explain.” Writing & Research in the Disciplines. Accessed March 7,
2023. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/olemiss-writ250/chapter/body-paragraphs-introduce-cite-explain/
.
———. “Counterargument.” Writing & Research in the Disciplines. Accessed June 12, 2023.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/olemiss-writ250/chapter/counterargument/
.
———. “Defining and Evaluating Evidence.” Writing & Research in the Disciplines. Accessed March 7, 2023.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/olemiss-writ250/chapter/defining-and-evaluating-evidence/
.
———. “Defining and Evaluating Reasons.” Writing & Research in the Disciplines. Accessed March 7, 2023.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/olemiss-writ250/chapter/defining-and-evaluating-reasons/
.
———. “Evaluating Evidence.” Writing & Research in the Disciplines. Accessed March 7, 2023.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/olemiss-writ250/chapter/evaluating-evidence/
.
———. “Glossary of Biases.” Writing & Research in the Disciplines. Accessed March 7, 2023.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/olemiss-writ250/chapter/glossary/
.
———. “Strategies for Making a Successful Argument.” Writing & Research in the Disciplines. Accessed March 7,
2023.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/olemiss-writ250/chapter/strategies-for-making-a-successful-
argument/.
———. “Why Do We Cite Borrowed Information?” Writing & Research in the Disciplines. Accessed March 7,
2023. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/olemiss-writ250/chapter/why-do-we-cite-borrowed-information/
.
University of Nebraska. “Reading Strategically.” Graduate Connections University of Nebraska Office of Graduate
Studies, October 18, 2016. https://graduate.unl.edu/connections/studying-tips-graduate-students
.
Van Creveld, Martin L. Command in War. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987.
Zinsser, William. On Writing Well: The Classic Guide to Writing Nonfiction. Anniversary Reprint edition. New
York: Harper Perennial, 2016.
———. Writing to Learn: How to Write - and Think - Clearly About Any Subject at All. New York: Harper Collins,
2013.
75
This page intentionally blank.
88
US
A
RMY
C
OMMAND AND
G
ENERAL
S
TAFF
C
OLLEGE
