INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 1

Indirect Communication as a Teaching Method for Developing Transference and

Capability in Taiwanese College Students

Melynie J. Tooley

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy in Strategic Communications

Liberty University

November 2023

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 2

Dedication

I have been wonderfully blessed to come across many who encouraged and prayed for me

through this long journey. First, I want to thank my children; Sydney, Ryker, and Courtney, who

started this journey with me while they were still in high school and who have gone on to

graduate with their own college and master’s degrees, proving that the family who studies

together, stays together.

Second, I would like to thank my parents; Brenda Johnson and Bill & Zadie Johnson,

who encouraged me to put God first in my life, and for your support, encouragement, and faith

that I could do it. I hope I have made you proud.

Last but not least, I am profoundly grateful to my husband, Richard, who read every

word, helped me re-write the sections that needed help, read all the research, and spent many late

nights listening to my ideas and theories. I’m sure you could have defended this dissertation as

well as me. This is his third PWT (Putting Wifie Through) degree. I dedicate this dissertation to

you! You have been my partner through it all. I could never have done this without you!

Thanks be to God, “For it is the LORD who gives wisdom; from his mouth come

knowledge and understanding” (Proverbs 2:6, New International Version, 2011).

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 3

Acknowledgements

My journey began at a Women of Faith conference in Washington, DC, when I passed a

Liberty University booth promoting the idea that women could continue their education online. I

passed by that booth for 3 years - contemplating, wishing, considering – before I finally decided

to seriously look into the idea of pursing an M.A. in Communications. After graduating in 2017,

I had no intention of pursuing any further education, until my diploma was lost in a flood and I

needed another copy in order to teach in Taiwan. When I called Liberty University for a

replacement, they asked if I would be interested in their new doctoral program in strategic

communications. I was hesitant; however, it was Dr. Cecil V. Kramer, the chair of my master’s

committee, who suggested that I consider it.

So, I put in a call to Dr. Robert K. Mott, who graciously spent 2 hours on the phone,

while I drove from Maryland to Tennessee, explaining the program and convincing me that I

could do it. That was on a Friday and I was enrolled the next Monday. After completing the

doctoral coursework, due to Covid, the topic I had chosen needed to be changed. Again, Dr. Mott

spent another couple of hours of his time going over the options and making suggestions.

Because I was teaching in Taiwan, Dr. Mott felt that I had a unique opportunity to explore

communications through the eyes of another culture and that I should pursue a topic related to

Taiwan. This dissertation topic is the result of Dr. Mott’s ideas, creativity, and ability to help me

think outside-the-box. I also want to thank Dr. Mott for recommending Dr. Parmelee as my

committee chair. I did not have any idea who to request to be on my team and Dr. Mott thought

we would be perfect together. You were right! Thank you, Dr. Mott!

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 4

I want to especially thank and acknowledge Dr. Sheri Dean Parmelee, who has gone

above and beyond the university requirements for a dissertation chair. She met with me every

single week, via Zoom, for 18 months. Even during summer vacation and through 16 weeks of

chemo, she never missed a single week, showing unbelievable dedication and devotion. She also

spent untold hours reading and editing my dissertation and offering advice. Your friendship and

encouragement kept me on track in the pursuit of excellence and were invaluable to me. I am

successful thanks to you!

I also want to thank Dr. Wesley W. Hartley for being on my committee and suggesting

that I read the books, “Overhearing the Gospel” and “Desiring the Kingdom,” both of which

were extremely useful to my research.

Again, I want to offer my sincere thanks to my dissertation committee: Dr. Mott, Dr.

Parmelee, and Dr. Hartley. My achievement is due to your personal efforts and commitment to

my success. I am indebted and eternally grateful for your support.

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 5

Abstract

The capacity of a student to apply knowledge in new contexts involves the ability to

transfer memorized knowledge to meaning, in real-world situations. However, there are

conflicting views and an overall lack of research regarding how (the process) students in higher

education, in Taiwan, transfer that knowledge. This is especially apparent in highly dynamic

environments where knowledge is rapidly and continuously evolving, such as in the current

technology arena and business industry. This research aims to explore indirect communication as

a method for teachers to assist Taiwanese college students to transfer memorized facts, and thus

develop capability in new contexts. Research has been done on related topics, particularly in the

area of direct communication; however, the use of indirect communication, as a tool for

transference, in higher education, remains largely unexplored. This paper will introduce the

study by first discussing the background, trends, and current state, followed by an exploration of

the literature surrounding Søren Kierkegaard’s theory of indirect communication, as it applies to

education, as a method for Taiwanese students transfer to move from memorized facts, to

developing capability.

Keywords: Indirect Communication, capability, Søren Kierkegaard, Taiwan higher

education, knowledge transference

 INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN   6 
 
 
Table of Contents 
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... 2 
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 3 
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 5 
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ 6 
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... 11 
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ 12 
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 13 
Overview ....................................................................................................................................... 13 
Background, Current State, and Trends ........................................................................................ 13 
Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................................. 23 
Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................................................... 24 
Significance of the Study .............................................................................................................. 25 
Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 26 
Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 26 
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................................................. 28 
Overview ....................................................................................................................................... 28 
Communications ........................................................................................................................... 28 
Traditions ...................................................................................................................................... 29 

 INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN   7 
 
The Socio-psychological Tradition ........................................................................................... 29 
The Cybernetic Tradition .......................................................................................................... 30 
The Rhetorical Tradition ........................................................................................................... 31 
The Critical Tradition ................................................................................................................ 31 
The Socio-cultural Tradition ..................................................................................................... 32 
The Phenomenological Tradition .............................................................................................. 33 
The Semiotic Tradition.............................................................................................................. 34 
Rationale for Tradition Selection .................................................................................................. 36 
Indirect Communication ............................................................................................................... 39 
Kierkegaard’s History and Background........................................................................................ 43 
Indirect Communication -- How/What ..................................................................................... 45 
Indirect Communication as Art ..................................................................................................... 49 
Capability .................................................................................................................................. 51 
Behaviorist and Constructivist Philosophies of Education ........................................................... 53 
Taiwan Educational History ......................................................................................................... 59 
Eastern Education Philosophy ...................................................................................................... 61 
Transference .................................................................................................................................. 65 
Context ...................................................................................................................................... 70 
Reflection .................................................................................................................................. 71 
Dialogue .................................................................................................................................... 73 

 INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN   8 
 
Kierkegaard on Education............................................................................................................. 74 
Role of the Teacher ................................................................................................................... 76 
Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 79 
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY............................................................................................. 82 
Overview ....................................................................................................................................... 82 
Research Approach ....................................................................................................................... 82 
Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 82 
Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 83 
Narrative Inquiry ........................................................................................................................... 85 
The Researcher.............................................................................................................................. 86 
The Study Process ......................................................................................................................... 87 
Participants ................................................................................................................................ 87 
Data Collection .......................................................................................................................... 88 
Reflexivity ................................................................................................................................. 89 
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 91 
Triangulation ............................................................................................................................. 93 
Trustworthiness ............................................................................................................................. 94 
Ethical Issues ................................................................................................................................ 97 
Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 98 
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS ........................................................................................................ 100 

 INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN   9 
 
Overview ..................................................................................................................................... 100 
Participants .............................................................................................................................. 100 
Data Collection and Analysis .................................................................................................. 101 
Instruction and Pedagogy ........................................................................................................ 107 
Role of the Teacher ................................................................................................................. 110 
Student Presentations .............................................................................................................. 114 
Teamwork and Sharing Ideas .................................................................................................. 116 
Discussion and Debate using Real-World Scenarios .............................................................. 117 
Classroom Environment and Feedback ................................................................................... 119 
Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 120 
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION ................................................................................................... 121 
Overview ..................................................................................................................................... 121 
Teacher Attributes ................................................................................................................... 122 
Classroom Environment .......................................................................................................... 125 
Indirect Communication Teaching Method ............................................................................ 128 
Answering the Research Questions ......................................................................................... 131 
Implications................................................................................................................................. 132 
Limitations .................................................................................................................................. 133 
Recommendations for Future Research ...................................................................................... 133 
Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 134 

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 10

References ................................................................................................................................... 137

APPENDIX A: IRB Approval .................................................................................................... 160

APPENDIX B: Informed Consent Form .................................................................................... 161

APPENDIX C: Course Syllabus – Public Speaking ................................................................... 164

APPENDIX D: Course Syllabus – English School-wide Elective Course ................................. 166

APPENDIX E: Open-Ended Student Interview Questions ........................................................ 169

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 11

List of Figures

Figure 1 Kolb’s Learning Cycle, as cited in ISC Medical, 2019 ................................................. 68

Figure 2 Theme Categories ........................................................................................................ 105

Figure 3 Classroom curriculum design ...................................................................................... 108

Figure 4 2-Prong Approach to Capability .................................................................................. 129

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 12

List of Tables

Table 1 Process for Thematic Analysis ...................................................................................... 102

Table 2 Coding Process .............................................................................................................. 103

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 13

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Overview

The capacity of a student to apply knowledge in new contexts involves the ability to

transfer memorized knowledge to meaning, in real-world situations; however, there are

conflicting views and an overall lack of research regarding how (the process) students in higher

education, in Taiwan, transfer that knowledge. This is especially apparent in highly dynamic

environments where knowledge is rapidly and continuously evolving, such as the current

technology arena and business industry. This research aims to explore indirect communication as

a method for Western teachers to assist Taiwanese college students to transfer memorized facts,

and thus develop capability in new contexts. Research has been done on related topics,

particularly in the area of direct communication; however, the use of indirect communication, as

a tool for transference, in higher education, remains largely unexplored. This chapter will

introduce the study by first discussing the background, trends, and current state, followed by the

statement of the problem, the purpose and significance of the study, and conclude with the

research questions.

Background, Current State, and Trends

One of the main purposes of higher education is to prepare students to apply learned

knowledge in new contexts and real-world situations. However, recent studies have shown that

there is a disconnect between higher education and a students’ workforce readiness

(ahealliance.org, 2020). Work-readiness has been defined as “possession of the skills,

knowledge, attitudes and understanding that will enable new graduates to make productive

contributions to organizational objectives soon after commencing employment” (Mason et al.,

2006, p. 2). Companies in major industries report that they are unable to grow or compete

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 14

because the students coming out of college are not able to apply the knowledge obtained in

school with the capacity to perform specific tasks (penn-mar.org, 2022). A global talent research

study surveyed more than 40,000 employers in 40 countries and revealed that four out of five

employers report difficulty in finding qualified talent (Manpower Group, 2023; Myers, 2022).

Within the global community, this problem has risen from 38% in 2015 to an all-time high of

77% in 2023 (Manpower Group; Myers; OECD.org, 2021; Verma et al., 2018), with skills

shortage being the biggest threat to business disruption in the future (Conklin, 2022).

This problem is a global issue, with Asia-Pacific employers in areas such as Taiwan,

Singapore, China, and Hong Kong, facing the highest talent shortages. With shrinking birth rates

and the rise of early retirees, 90% of employers in Taiwan reported difficulty finding the

qualified talent they need, representing the highest percentage within the global market

(Manpower Group, 2023). Thus, a person must consider the problem of work-readiness, and

what is meant by qualified talent, to examine the competencies that are required to mitigate this

problem.

The National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE) has identified work-

readiness as the ability to perform both hard and soft skills (naceweb.org, 2022). Hard skills can

be defined as objective, quantifiable skills gained through training, school, or work experiences

(Tankovic et al., 2021) and can be measured by the employee’s ability to perform a specific task

(penn-mar.org, 2022). For this reason, hard skills can, typically, be easily proven. For example,

someone either knows how to write code or speak English, or they do not know how to write

code or speak English (Girardin, 2022). In education, one would measure hard skills by a written

exam, which could easily measure one’s ability to do mathematical functions or grammar

proficiency. Soft skills, however, are not easy to measure and can be more difficult to assess.

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 15

Soft skills are non-technical skills. They involve how one works and interacts with

others, or how an employee completes a task (Kaplan, 2022; penn-mar.org, 2022). Other

researchers describe soft skills as personal attributes that “improve the interaction of individuals”

(Tankovic et al., 2021, p. 169), which permits them to deal effectively with the challenges of the

work environment and everyday life (Hurrell, 2016; Tankovic et al.), allowing them to better

understand their own actions (Singh & Jaykumar, 2019). Ranade et al. (2010) identified soft

skills as a behavior that directs employees towards goals that will make them more effective at

what they do (Ranade et al., 2010). Penn-mar.org (2022) states that soft skills include attributes

such as thinking, behavior, and cognitive skills.

Even though most researchers agree that employers need both hard and soft skills, soft

skills are regarded as more important to employers (ahealliance.org, 2020; Manpower Group,

2023; Myers, 2022; Verma et al., 2018; Tankovic et al., 2021; Singh & Jaykumar, 2019; Balcar,

2016; Succi & Canovi, 2020). According to Joanne Rosen, Chief Operations Officer at Write

Choice Resumes, “Employers want to see how well [potential employees] work with people and

can think beyond their learning” (Kaplan, 2022, p. 7). Former Harvard University President,

Derek Bok, proposed that college students today are more inclined to value education for its

ability to provide material success, which entails getting a good job, than for a love of learning.

For these students, “useful skills matter more than ever” (Bok, 2006, p. 36). These include

teaching skills that were previously thought to be skills one was either born with or had to learn

for oneself--skills such as “capability in interpersonal relations, or the ability to communicate

effectively across cultural boundaries, or techniques of mediation, negotiation, and leadership”

(Bok, p. 36), in other words, soft skills.

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 16

Unlike hard skills, soft skills encompass a variety of different skills, are widely

applicable, and not directly related to a particular task (Tankovic et al., 2021). Soft skills are a

vital part of interpersonal and relationship-building skills, which are required for effective

communication and collaboration (Dogara et al., 2020). The Organization for Economic

Cooperation and Development (OECD) (2021) has categorized the competencies needed for

future employment as foundational skills such as “higher-level cognitive capabilities (problem-

solving), interpersonal skills (communication), teamwork and negotiation, flexibility, learning

skills, creativity, and entrepreneurship” (p. 14). A recent survey indicated that 89% of college

graduates are not successful on the job due to a lack of soft skills (penn-mar.org, 2022), which,

when added to the above categories, results in an additional need for soft skills such as social

skills, adaptability, time-management, customer service, oral and written communication,

leadership, transferability, and capability (Verma et al., 2018; ahealliance.org, 2020; penn-

mar.org; Myers, 2022).

Manpower (2023) lists five soft skill categories that employers are looking for in higher

education graduates: reliability and self-discipline, resilience and adaptability, reasoning and

problem-solving, creativity and originality, and critical thinking and analysis. Tankovic et al.

(2021) arranges these skills into five groups. First, communication skills, which includes

listening, presenting, and both verbal and nonverbal communication skills. Second, interpersonal

skills, which are comprised of skills such as cooperation, developing good relationships, and

giving and receiving effective feedback. Third, emotional intelligence, which includes skills such

as self-control, self-awareness, and self-motivation. Fourth, intrapersonal skills, which consists

of empathy, assertiveness, and managing stress. And fifth, professionalism, which includes

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 17

knowledge of business etiquette, work ethic, time management, and the ability to resolve

conflicts.

From among this large and varied group of soft skills, many researchers have stressed

communication skills as one of the most important for graduating students (Tankovic, et al.,

2021; Verma et al., 2018; Conklin, 2022; LeadershipIQ.com, 2022; Nusrat & Sultana, 2019;

OECD.org, 2021; Succi & Canovi, 2020; Robles, 2012; Manpower Group, 2023). Youssef

(2017) described communication skills as” the ability to share ideas, feelings, opinions, and

information in a way that a common understanding of the message among all parties is ensured”

(p. 90). Better social and communication skills are related to better job performance and

employability, and individuals with greater communication skills tend to be chosen as leaders

(Succi & Canovi, 2020). Employers are looking for employees and managers who not only work

well with each other, but can collaborate on projects. One study published in the Harvard

Business Review, found that time spent with managers and employees in collaborative activities

has “ballooned by 50 percent or more over the last decade and that, at many companies, more

than three-quarters of an employee’s day is spent communicating with colleagues” (Duhigg,

2016, p. 2). Thus, communication tops the list as one of the most important skills needed for

university and college graduates.

The importance of soft skills has been widely recognized, especially in the area of

communication skills, and has become a prominent topic of research, especially in terms of a

student’s readiness for their future workplace. Despite the undeniable importance of

communication skills (Robles, 2012), existing studies show that the preparedness of future

employees remains insufficient (Castillo et al., 2021).

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 18

According to a Leadership IQ study (LeadershipIQ.com, 2022), 89% of new hire failures

were a result of poor soft skills; not technical failures. New hires were more likely to fail because

they lacked soft skills like coachability, emotional intelligence, and motivation, with only 11% of

new hire failures resulting from a lack of technical competence (LeadershipIQ.com). A recent

survey, conducted by the National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE), reported that

nearly 86% of employers are seeking evidence of teamwork and problem-solving skills on the

resumés of the students they are recruiting this year (naceweb.org, 2022). However, according to

Singh and Jaykumar (2019), there is a serious gap between the demand for qualified entry-level

employees and the available supply.

Regardless of the complaints of employers about the lack of work-ready skills, higher

education institutions continue to insist that students need to master STEM subjects–science,

technology, engineering, and math–because that is where the jobs are, but research shows that

what students need to know and what they need to be able to do, are at odds. Surprisingly, this

research comes from the company most identified with the STEM-approach: Google. Google

recently conducted two studies on workplace success that contradict the conventional wisdom

about hard skills. Originally, Google set its hiring algorithms to sort for technology savvy

science students with top grades from elite science universities, only to discover, with its 2008

launch of Project Oxygen, that among the eight most important qualities of Google’s top

employers, STEM expertise came in last. The seven top characteristics of success at Google

turned out to be all soft skills: team management, communication and listening, empathy for

others, problem-solving, and being able to make connections across complex ideas. Hard skills,

such as technology, engineering, or computer skills, ended up being the least important quality

for work-readiness or qualified talent (Strauss, 2017).

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 19

In 2013, Google took a second look at their research to see if the qualities needed

updating. The results were the same; however, two additional soft skills were added to the list,

the ability to collaborate and make decisions (Harrell & Barbato, 2018). Following the success of

Project Oxygen, where the analytics team studied their managers, Google researchers applied a

similar method to discover the qualities of effective teams. Project Aristotle further supported the

importance of soft skills, even in high-tech environments (Duhigg, 2016). Google studied its A-

teams, made up of top scientists, each with specialized knowledge, and the ability to produce

cutting-edge ideas. Remarkably, however, the data analysis revealed that the company’s most

important and productive new ideas came from its B-teams, which were comprised of average

employees who were not superstars (Strauss, 2017). In addition to a corporations’ need for

qualified and skilled talent, venture capitalist Mark Cuban, the Shark Tank television personality,

says, “He looks for philosophy majors when he is investing in sharks most likely to succeed”

(Strauss, 2017, p. 2).

Even though research has shown the increasing need for soft skills, education systems

pay limited attention to this topic and remain focused on the development of hard skills (Balcar,

2016; England et al., 2020; Daniels & Brooker, 2014). According to Harvard President Derek

Bok (2006), most professors try to concern themselves only with provable knowledge--

“statements that can be verified by empirical demonstration, mathematics, or logic” (p. 37).

However, Bok discovered that students feel differently. In addition to preparing for work, many

students are intensely interested in learning skills that relate to personal values such as moral

reasoning, ethics and ethical behavior, and civic responsibility (Bok, 2006). According to a

survey of more than 112,000 college students, two-thirds of all freshmen considered it

“essential” or “very important” that colleges help students develop these personal values

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 20

(McDonald, 2005). Bok (2006) posited that at this stage in their lives, students are often seeking

to determine their identities: “what they stand for, how they want to live their lives, what

experiences hold the greatest meaning” (p. 38). Thus, learning soft skills, in addition to hard

skills becomes an important issue for a student’s future success.

Both recruiters and higher education faculty all agree that soft skills are a desirable

quality; however, there are disparities in the perceived importance of which ones to teach and

how to teach them. Many higher education faculty believe that passive lecturing can help

students memorize rules and concepts and apply them to a limited range of problems similar to

those covered in class, but they do little to equip students to apply their knowledge to new

problems (Bok, 2006). A study conducted by Nusrat and Sultana (2019) indicated a gap between

executives’ expectations from graduates and the institutional teaching provided by higher

education institutions. Moreover, the study suggested the need for further research for

implementing training programs for attaining the most desired soft skills among higher education

institutions (Nusrat & Sultana, 2019). According to Bok (2006), this can be accomplished by a

process of active learning, challenging students’ answers, and encouraging students to apply the

information and concepts to a variety of new situations. Bok suggests that it is a university’s job

to help students achieve these soft skills by helping them communicate with greater precision,

think more clearly, analyze more rigorously, become more ethically discerning, and more active

in civic affairs. The absence of training in these skills at higher education institutions has resulted

in what Bok terms “underachieving colleges” (p. 4)

The lack of these skills has had a direct impact on educational institutions around the

world. In 2022, National Taiwan University was ranked number 113 in The Times Higher

Education World University Rankings, but fell 74 spots, to number 187 for 2023. The rankings

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 21

are evaluated using more than 1,600 universities in 99 countries and were based on performance

indicators focusing on teaching, research, and knowledge transfer (Strong, 2022). This is of

great concern to Taiwan, where the education system is still based on memorization and rote

learning (Di, 2017; Wang & Byram, 2011; Wegerif, 2014). The education method in Taiwan

continues to emphasize hard skills in its curriculum, especially in the areas of math and science,

leaving an absence in the education of soft skills. Even though the Taiwan Minister of Education

stresses the need for Taiwan to move towards a more hands-on, learner-centered classroom, there

is still a major emphasis on teaching to the test (Hallinger & Jiafang, 2013; Liu, 2006), which

creates an inability for the students to develop soft skills. This inhibits the transfer of memorized

information and knowledge to new contexts and real-world situations, which requires soft skill

competencies, such as problem-solving skills, teamwork, and communication.

A study conducted by the Taiwan Ministry of Education in 2021 (Taiwan Ministry of

Education, 2021) reported that students entering college perform better in receptive skills than in

productive skills, with an English proficiency of 27% in listening and reading, 20% in writing

and a capability of only 8% in speaking. In addition, students encountered difficulty in the ability

to dialogue and express their thoughts. To help remedy this problem, the Ministry of Education

in Taiwan has implemented the Bilingual Nation 2030 Policy, which aims to utilize diverse

learning methods and emphasize communication capabilities by connecting learning with real

life situations to strengthen their global competitiveness and satisfy the demand for qualified

talent (Taiwan Ministry of Education, 2021). Thus, the demand for soft skills and a student’s

ability to transfer those skills is a necessity in order to compete in the job market.

Verma et al. (2018) emphasized the importance of transferability as one of the

competencies that is needed for work-readiness. According to a study conducted by the Stanford

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 22

Research Institute and Harvard University, 85% of a person’s professional success is attributed

to social skills, while only 15% is derived from technical knowledge (Youssef, 2017).

It has been suggested by the American Higher Education Alliance that universities could

increase the value of a college degree if there was more hands-on training in the area of soft-skill

basics such as communication and conflict resolution skills (ahealliance.org, 2020). Hung (2013)

suggested that when the focus of teaching and learning is on abstract concepts and memorization,

the way knowledge exhibits itself in real world situations or is used to solve real-life problems is

often overlooked. This means that college graduates in Taiwan have added barriers to overcome

if they are going to be successful in their future careers. A recent poll of university graduates in

Taiwan, showed that 65.6% felt uncertain about the future, while 39.2% said their schools do not

offer the education that would help them acquire skills that would be useful in the job market

(Lin, 2022). “All this indicates that we have serious problems with our tertiary education

system,” stated Professor Huang, from the Kunhuei Education Foundation in Taiwan (Lin, p. 1).

All the mentioned soft skills are considered desirable by both corporate recruiters and

college faculties; however, there are disparities as to the perceived importance of soft skills

among faculties and recruiters and a gap was found between the business curriculum and the

industry expectations from fresh-out of business school graduates. Nusrat and Sultana (2019)

indicated that understanding the soft skills gap between executives’ expectations from the

graduates and the institutional teaching provided by higher education institutions (for business

majors), would help practitioners reform their business curriculum to better ensure employability

for their business graduates. Moreover, the study opened an avenue for further research in this

field for the implementation of training programs for attaining the most desired soft skills among

higher education institutions (Nusrat & Sultana, 2019). While research concludes that higher

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 23

education institutions should pay more attention to soft skills development, the method for how

to go about developing those skills has not been researched (Balcar, 2016). Even though research

supports the need for students to be able to transfer knowledge (hard skills) into meaning (soft

skills), no study so far has examined the process by which a student accomplishes this task.

Thus, this study attempts to fill this lacuna in the research by examining that process and the role

of indirect communication to enhance the understanding of transference of knowledge to

meaning from the perspective of the student.

Statement of the Problem

The ability to apply knowledge and skills to real-life situations is one of the predictors of

students’ success in real-world situations; however, traditional teaching methods, such as lecture-

based instruction, are often inefficient at boosting students’ learning transferability (Wang et al.,

2019). The ability, or inability, of individuals to transfer knowledge to meaning has been a topic

of communication theorists for decades (Brau, 2018). This is especially prevalent in Asian

countries where the education system is based on memorization of facts (He, Yuan, 2021; Di,

2017; Li & Wegerif, 2014).

Studies on indirect communication and transfer of learning have been advocated in

Western countries; however, it is relatively new in the context of Chinese higher education. Li

and Wegerif (2014) supported these views by explaining that Chinese students are generally

described as rote learners who learn mechanically, often without meaningful understanding (Li

& Wegerif, 2014). A recent study found that many students cannot apply their knowledge

productively in new contexts to new tasks and situations (Butler et al., 2017). This is especially

important to employers. The World Economic Forum Report indicated that 40% of all employees

in companies will need to learn new skills in the next six months that will enable them to

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 24

perform in a different job within the company and that 94% of business leaders expect

employees to acquire new skills on the job (World Economic Forum, 2020). These results

indicate that what is essential for a professional is not only focused on what employees know,

but on their ability to learn and adapt to changing situations, technologies, and processes

(Castillo et al., 2021).

While numerous scholars have discussed the importance of a student’s ability to transfer

knowledge, none have approached the topic from the perspective of indirect communication, as a

method for acquiring these skills. Frasier (2020) suggested that the primary purpose of indirect

communication is to effect a fundamental change in the way of life of a viewer or hearer. In this

way, indirect communication is concerned with transference of knowledge as it applies to

conveyance of ability (Fraser). As Søren Kierkegaard saw it, “All communication of capability is

indirect communication” (Kierkegaard, 1967-1978, p. 282 Vol 1).

Given the importance that knowledge transfer and capability may hold for future Asian

university graduates, it is important to fill this gap by conducting a study on the use of indirect

communication. By doing so, the present study can add to the literature on indirect

communication as a method to help Asian college students move from memorized facts to

meaning. The problem to be addressed is how Western teachers can use indirect communication

as a method for college students at a large university in Taiwan to transfer memorized facts to

meaning, and thus develop capability in new contexts and in real-world situations.

Purpose of the Study

Although this paper has discussed the problem of the lack of soft skills in higher

education graduates, soft skills are not the focus of this paper. Rather, it is the result of a lack of

education in the area of soft skills that needs addressing. The majority of higher-education

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 25

institutions in Taiwan favor the teaching of hard skills, which require the use of direct

communication in the form of lecture and memorization as opposed to teaching soft skills, which

requires a different educational focus. Preparing students to enter the workforce is the primary

goal of education, therefore, the need for education in the area of soft skills is critical, especially

as it relates to transferring knowledge into meaning. It is the emphasis on indirect

communication as a method for transference of those skills into meaningful capability that was

the focus of this research. The literature shows that methods other than direct communication,

which is the focus of most schools in Taiwan, are needed in order to assist students in forming

soft skill capabilities.

Most students entering college in Taiwan have been taught to memorize facts and

vocabulary, but cannot use that information in new contexts or in speaking English in real-world

situations. The purpose of this study was to explore how indirect communication can help

students make the transfer from facts to meaning, and thus develop capability in new contexts

and in real-world situations. The research objective was to explore the process a student goes

through to transfer knowledge to meaning and the role indirect communication plays in that

process.

Significance of the Study

This study adds to the current body of knowledge by contributing research on the use of

indirect communication as a means of moving students from knowledge-based learning

(memorization), to meaning, and ultimately to capability. According to the International Trade

Commission on Taiwan Education, there is a growing interest in innovative approaches to

learning (Chen, 2022). For Taiwan to reach its goal of being bilingual by 2030, new education

models will include a more personalized learning environment, hands-on experiential learning,

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 26

situation and simulation learning, game-based learning, and AR/VA experience-type

technologies (Chen, 2022), as indirect methods of instruction. The Taiwan Ministry of

Education’s 2021 study considers a student’s ability to communicate in English, to effectively

dialogue with others, and to connect learning with life to be “vital for raising the international

competitiveness of Taiwan’s workforce” (p. 2). In order to accomplish this, Taiwan is deploying

advanced strategies and teaching models aimed at enhancing communication, capability,

professional expertise, and an education in soft skills. In this, the significance of indirect learning

as a communication model will be of value as Asian educators move toward solving the problem

of rote-memorization and knowledge-only-based learning.

Currently, there is no research on using indirect communication as a tool for transference,

or on the process a student goes through to transfer knowledge to meaning, and thus becoming

able to develop capability in new contexts or in real-world situations. This study explored how

indirect communication can be used as an educational tool.

Research Questions

The research questions for this study are:

RQ1: How can Western teachers use indirect communication as a method for Taiwanese

college students to transfer memorized facts into meaning, and thus develop capability, that can

be used in new contexts and in real-world situations?

RQ2: How does indirect communication affect a student’s ability to transfer facts into

capability so students can apply that knowledge in new contexts and real-world situations?

Summary

Employers and business owners are looking for students with the skills necessary to take

learned knowledge, gained in higher education institutions, and apply that knowledge in new

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 27

contexts and in real-world situations; however, research indicates that these skills are lacking,

causing a disconnect between what a student learns in college and that student’s ability to

perform specific tasks, which affects the student’s workforce readiness. Many of these specific

tasks revolve around a student’s ability to perform soft skills. Most higher education institutions

excel at teaching hard skills and continue to utilize lecture and memorization in the classroom,

even though evidence points to alternative communication methods and models of teaching. This

is important to Taiwan as there is a significant deficiency in the students’ communication skills

and ability to perform soft skills, which affects the graduating student’s ability to compete in the

global employment market. Chapter 2 will explore the literature surrounding Søren

Kierkegaard’s theory of indirect communication as it applies to education and as a method for

students to transfer memorized facts into meaning, and thus develop capability in new contexts.

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 28

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

Overview

One of the main purposes of higher education is to prepare students to apply learned

knowledge in new contexts and in real-world situations. However, recent studies have shown

that there is a disconnect between a student’s knowledge and his or her capability to perform

upon graduation (Verma et al., 2018; Nusrat & Sultana, 2019; ahealliance.org, 2020). From a

communication perspective, research suggests that time is spent on what is communicated as

opposed to how it is communicated (Fraser, 2020). This chapter will begin with a discussion of

the communication traditions, followed by a review of the literature surrounding Søren

Kierkegaard’s theory of indirect communication, as it applies to transferability and capability

through the eyes of Eastern and Western thought. The discussion will conclude with a review of

the literature on learning theories and their relationship to indirect communication.

Communications

Before progressing further, it is worth visiting the field of communications to understand

it as a field. It was not too long ago that ‘communications’ was not recognized as a field of study

(Craig, 1999). Even after it was so recognized, it remained a field of disconnected and non-

dialogical theories that simply did not recognize other theories (Craig, 1999; Ward, 2013). Craig

attributed the largely incoherent condition of communications, as a field, to the originating

sources of communications theory, being drawn from a wide variety of other fields of study,

followed by the lack of discourse.

If the field of communications continues on its current trajectory, it seems that Craig

(1999) will be seen by many as the father of the modern field of communications. Craig argued

that the field of communications should not seek a unified theoretical frame, but rather be

dialogical and dialectical (Craig, 1999). However, Craig was clear that there was a level of

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 29

interconnectivity between the different traditions. Craig also posited that the interconnectivity of

these traditions in communication was, at its heart, meta-discursive in that it becomes the

discourse about discourse (Cooren, 2012), and therein lies its coherence (Craig, 1999).

Traditions

As part of this treatise on communications as a field, Craig (1999) offered a frame of

seven traditions within which the communications field could operate. Those seven traditions are

identified and summarized below, along with a rationale for the tradition used in this study.

The Socio-psychological Tradition

The socio-psychological tradition sees communication as interpersonal interaction (Craig,

2022) and falls under the behavioral approach, which focuses on stimuli and reaction. According

to Krauss and Fussell, (1996), social psychology is defined as the “study of the ways in which

people affect, and are affected by, others” (p. 3). Socio-psychological theorists believe that the

meaning of a communication resides in the individual; whereas, socio-cultural theorists believe

that meaning arises from the interaction (LibreTexts, 2021). The socio-psychological tradition

postulates that the meaning of communication resides within the mind of each individual. The

objective is to understand how a person processes information.

Understanding the elements of persuasion and attitude change is a key aspect of the

socio-psychological tradition and revolves around the central question of how to get people to

change. The goal of the researcher is to discover what stimuli elicit what responses, which tends

to be quite objective in nature. Communication in this tradition is theorized as expression,

interaction, and influence, with the ability to analyze cause-and-effect relationships. For

example, a person may be inclined to stop smoking if one saw an article or a graphic video

showing what smoking does to the lungs. Thus, the essential element of this tradition is that

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 30

truths are revealed through systematic experimentation and observation in order to show cause

and effect (Apuke, 2018).

The Cybernetic Tradition

The cybernetic tradition, also known as the control theory, relies on the process of

communication first posited by Shannon and Weaver (1949). In this model there is an encoder, a

sender of the message, a communication channel, a receiver, and a feedback process (Ward,

2013). In this model the sender sends a message to a receiver through channels (the five senses)

with the goal of reducing as much noise as possible in order to send the message effectively and

accurately (Kubota, 2019). A good example of ‘noise’ would be someone using a smart phone to

make a telephone call and experiencing static, or a loss of signal, when driving through a tunnel,

impeding feedback, with the receiver responding by saying, “Wait. I can’t hear you. You’re

breaking up.” Shannon and Weaver saw information as “the ability of a message to combat the

chaos of noise” (Apuke, 2018, p. 23).

In the cybernetic tradition, inputs and information are gathered from the surrounding

environment and responses are generated based on the message received. In this tradition,

feedback is the key concept that makes effective communication possible within a system

(Maguire, 2006). Here, the focus is on the system and the channels which are used to transmit the

message. Cybernetics operates by following a sequence of events for reaching a goal and taking

action, thus, communication in this tradition is always goal oriented (Grover, 2016).

When applied to classroom teaching, cybernetics can be used to improve efficiency and

effectiveness by automating the system. According to Grover (2016), the teacher plays the role

of the steers-man who “navigates through the ocean of problems and takes the learner to the

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 31

target agreed by the teacher and learner” (p. 51). This is accomplished in a conscious and

systematic manner, with the goal of control and automation.

The Rhetorical Tradition

The key characteristic of the rhetorical tradition is the understanding that speech is a

primary differentiator between man and animals. Rhetoric is also valuable as a means of

influencing large groups of people, even to the point of subjugation. In this tradition, words

matter when crafted correctly. Rhetoric is generally one-way communication, and is considered

the domain of public speaking and public relations (Maguire, 2006). It examines the processes by

which the speaker and the listener move toward each other and find common ground to go

forward (LibreTexts, 2021). Jasinksi (2001) recognized rhetoric as, “not only helping to produce

judgments about specific issues, it also helps to produce or constitute a social world” (p. 192).

The Critical Tradition

The critical tradition emphasizes discursive reflection and reflects on the ways that

discourse creates dominant and marginalized voices, often revolving around restoring social

justice (LibreTexts, 2021). This tradition emphasizes the control of language to regulate power

imbalances and unjust discourse. Scholars of this tradition believe that the group who controls

the language can actually be the dominant influence within a given society (Craig, 2022). Lynch

(2019) suggested that there are several ways one can implement critical pedagogy into the

classroom: one can challenge oneself to think critically, challenge social structures, change the

classroom dynamic, present alternative views, change one’s assessments, and encourage

activism. Ultimately, the critical tradition links the reduction of dominion and violence and tries

to support the evolution and development of humanity (Lynch, 2019).

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 32

The Socio-cultural Tradition

The socio-cultural perspective considers the way that different individuals interact with

their social groups and how these social groups influence their development. Littlejohn et al.

(2017), posited that the socio-cultural tradition addresses how one’s understandings, meanings,

norms, roles, and rules are worked out interactively; therefore, the formation of identities through

interactions is essential in this tradition. In essence, culture is produced through dialogue. It is

believed that individuals shape their identities through interaction as they move from situation to

situation and from social group to social group. For socio-culturalists, the influence of culture on

both communication and meaning cannot be underestimated (Littlejohn et al., 2017). Because

this tradition focuses on cultural and social norms, communication is socially constructed and is

shaped by the language people use to understand their world. For example, a wealthy individual

will develop and understand the world differently than a poor individual.

This tradition also studies how communication assists the formation of small groups, and

provides the impetus for them to grow. It is in this tradition, and in the semiotic tradition, that

one catches a glimpse of what Craig (1999) alluded to when he suggested that the traditions were

interconnected. This tradition both influences and is influenced by the semiotic tradition in that a

word or symbol, with an alternate meaning, may become that meaning, with the original

meaning becoming the alternate one. For example, the word “gay” once meant essentially

“happy.” At some point, that meaning was supplanted with a new meaning that now has become

the main meaning in American society.

Unlike the socio-psychological tradition that focuses on individual characteristics, this

tradition is more interested in patterns of interaction between people (Magut, 2016; Maguire,

2006). The focus is on the way meaning is created in interactions in real-life situations (Magut,

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 33

2016). It would follow that the researcher in this tradition would be seeking to understand and

explain the various possible meanings of a subject in its natural setting (Magut). Unlike the other

traditions, the socio-cultural focuses on how cultures influence “what we say; how we say it, and

the interpretations we give to messages we receive” (Magut, 2016, p. 10), which ultimately

shapes our worldview. People cannot ignore the influence of culture on what, why, where, and

how people communicate.

The Phenomenological Tradition

The phenomenological tradition focuses on dialogue, reflexivity, and mental models

rooted in personal experience. In other words, a person’s experience is their own subjective truth,

and authentic relationships are established through the direct experience of others (Maguire,

2006). This implies that two people cannot have the same exact experience. In this view, one

comes to know the world by “directly and consciously engaging in it, pondering its meaning for

oneself, and interpreting that meaning through language” (LibreTexts, 2021, p. 5). The aim of

phenomenology is focused on finding new meanings and explanations for things through real-life

experience (Selvi, 2008). As students focus on inner experiences and perceptions related to a

topic, they create new knowledge. According to Louchakova (2005), phenomenological research

is a “transformative educational practice” (p. 108).

The phenomenological approach focuses on an individual’s first-hand experience rather

than the abstract experiences of others (Selvi, 2008). Dialogue is an important aspect of this

tradition. Through dialogue with others, one opens up oneself to the experience of others and can

integrate that experience into one’s own life. The goal of the phenomenological approach in

education is to create the motivation, desire and awareness to learn about others, inspiring self-

searching, self-experiences, and new learning experiences (Selvi, 2008). In this way, students

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 34

become aware of the importance of creating knowledge based on their own experiences.

Moustakas (1994) stated, “The most crucial learning comes from immersions and self-dialogues

and from transcendental places of imagination and reflection” (p. 41). Students describe their

experience, consider possible meanings, and understand the essence of their experiences, through

observations and direct perceptions. Meaning is derived by directly experiencing a particular

phenomenon. When combined with dialogue, this tradition provides a richness that has value;

however, one’s truth is still based on one’s experience.

The Semiotic Tradition

It is within the Semiotic tradition that indirect communication finds its home. The

semiotic tradition is about the discovery of “how meaning is created, not what it is” (Natsir,

2016, p. 2). The process of that discovery depends upon the idea that it is not just in the words

that meaning exists, but also, that the words and/or combinations of words themselves may be

hiding meaning that needs to be uncovered (Craig, 1999). Oftentimes, it is not the meaning of the

words themselves that matters, such meaning being rather arbitrary, but the meaning that exists

in the intent of the communicator (Maguire, 2006). Nordquist (2020) suggested that semiotics is

the process by which one person intends to stimulate meaning in the mind of another.

In the semiotic tradition, communication is seen as a process of sharing meaning through

signs, which can be both verbal and non-verbal (Maguire, 2006). There are two concepts that are

crucial to this tradition: sign and symbol. Signs refer to something that actually exists, such as a

stop light or a stop sign. Symbols are arbitrary and allow an individual to form concepts and

assign meaning to them, such as emojis that are included as part of a text message (Nordquist,

2020). Saussure (1983) defined a sign as any motion, gesture, image, pattern, or event that

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 35

conveys meaning, which, according to Apuke (2018), could be intentional or unintentional,

direct or indirect, and can be in the form of puns, analogy, allegory, metaphor, or symbolism.

Craig (2022) suggested that meaning comes from the relationship between the object, the

person, and the sign. Thus, meaning does not reside in the words, but in people. The meaning the

recipient derives from the sign is subjective and resides in the thoughts and associations that a

person links to the sign, causing it to have meaning for that person. It is the different thoughts

that people have about something, that permit meaning to be shared.

Within the realm of education, Sebeok et al. (1988), considered semiotics an important

part of teaching, arguing that semiotics “examines fundamental and highly abstract concepts that

are at the basis of education, namely, mind, learning, and information” (p. 1). Sebeok et al. also

stated that semiotics has provided a new perspective on pedagogy through the “broadening of

interest beyond the verbal into the nonverbal” (p. 2). Postman (1993) suggested that every school

should offer a course in semantics, as it is the process by which people make meaning. He stated,

“English teachers claim to be concerned with teaching reading and writing, but if they do not

teach anything about the relationship of language to reality, I cannot imagine how they expect

students to improve, since it is not possible to separate language from what we call knowledge”

(Postman, p. 194). He goes on to emphasize the importance of semiotics as it deals with the

processes by which we make and interpret meaning. Postman (1993) argues that the use of

semiotics:

Has great potential to affect the deepest levels of student intelligence. Such subjects have

the capability of generating critical thought and of giving students access to questions

that get to the heart of the matter. It teaches them to discover the underlying assumptions

of what they are told. The study of semantics insists upon these questions. (p. 195)

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 36

Natsir (2016) suggested that in the language classroom; the primary role of the language

learner is to “transfer and exchange correct information with his/her audience” (p. 2). While

doing this, the learner makes use of semiotic signs, many of which are nonverbal. This

communicative method can be used when utilizing forms of indirect communication such as

task-based activities that engage students in authentic and real-world situations. These social

interaction activities include dialogue, pair and group work, discussions, role plays, and

conversation. In this respect, the use of activity-cards, pictures, videos, graphics, advertisements,

and their symbols can be used as semiotic elements in the class (Natsir, 2016). According to

Jacobson (1974), the role of semiotics is to provide “the communication of any messages

whatever” (p. 32), or for Sebeok (1985) “the exchange of any messages whatever and the system

of signs which underlie them” (p. 1). In other words, the process of sharing meaning, through

both verbal and nonverbal language, is the primary concern of semiotics.

Rationale for Tradition Selection

In determining which tradition would be the best fit for this study, each of the traditions

was examined in light of its importance to communication and education. Even though there are

several traditions that could fit within the paradigms of this study, the focus of this research is on

how indirect communication moves a student from knowledge, to meaning, to capability. The

tradition that was chosen was based on the exploration of indirect communication as a method

for transference.

The topic for this research is situated in the semiotic tradition since it deals specifically

with indirect communication; however, the mentality and the culture of the subjects of the study

must also be considered. The subjects of this study were students who were oriented in the socio-

cultural tradition; and taught in the method of direct communication, in the form of rote

memorization and one-way communication. Therein, lies part of the problem. The difficulty rests

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 37

in how the students’ socio-cultural tradition, as part of their education, has affected their ability

to create meaning and thus move to capability. The socio-cultural tradition it is part of the

students’ background and orientation; however, the sociocultural tradition is not part of this

study as it focuses on how individuals interact within their social groups and through interactions

with others. This does not fit with the study of indirect communication as a method for moving

individuals to capability.

The socio-psychological tradition sees communication as interpersonal interaction, with

the objective to understand how people process information. Persuasion and attitude change are

key elements in this tradition, with the goal of the researcher being to discover what stimuli will

elicit change. Though this tradition could fit this research, as it studies the ways in which people

are affected by others, it falls under the behavioral model, which is based on experimentation and

observation, normally a quantitative approach. Thus, the socio-psychological tradition is not the

focus of this study, as the research is being conducted using a constructivist approach to

communication and learning.

Neither the rhetorical tradition nor the critical tradition fits the purpose of this study. The

rhetorical tradition is based on one-way communication and is considered the domain of public

speaking, while the critical tradition is based on discursive reflection to regulate power

imbalances and unjust discourse. The cybernetic tradition focuses on the system and channels

that are used to transmit a message and operates by following a sequence of events for reaching a

goal and taking action. The goal of cybernetics is to improve efficiency and effectiveness by

automating the system, with a focus on effective feedback. The focus of this study was on

indirect communication as it applies to meaning and capability and not on rhetoric or critical

discourse. The cybernetics tradition could fit this study as indirect communication requires

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 38

effective feedback from the teacher to the student and vice-versa; however, effective feedback

was not the focus of this research. It was the process of transference from knowledge to meaning

that was being explored.

The phenomenological tradition focuses on an individual’s first-hand experience, with

dialogue being an important aspect of this tradition. The goal is to create the motivation to learn

by self-searching and new experiences. This tradition was carefully considered, as it aligns

closely with the objective of discovering meaning for oneself, studying human experiences, and

integrating those experiences into one’s own life, which was one of the aims of this study.

However, the primary objective of this study was the investigation and description of a

phenomena without theories about the causal explanation. Phenomenology captures aspects of a

phenomena by analyzing data gathered over multiple time points and studies. Thus, this tradition

was not selected as it tends to require a more longitudinal structure, with observations being

conducted over a longer period of time. This study was conducted over a shorter period of time,

as it involved students in a particular classroom, over a specific period of time.

Thus, the tradition for this study was nested in the semiotic tradition. It is within the

semiotic tradition that the study of abstract concepts is shared as a process for how meaning is

developed. It focuses on the understanding of how people create and interpret meaning,

including how people communicate through metaphors, analogy, allegory, and other means of

expression (Tech Target, 2017). This study explored how indirect communication is used to

uncover the hidden meaning of words, moving a student from knowledge of the word; to the

ability to use that word in new contexts and in real-world situations.

With this brief analysis, both the interconnectivity and the focus of each of the traditions

are apparent. While all of the traditions have elements that come into play, the tradition that is

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 39

most significant to this study is the semiotic as it focuses on the meaning behind words, actions,

and symbols (indirect communication). In the process of uncovering that meaning, students

move from knowledge, to meaning, to capability. The semiotic tradition is concerned with the

motions, gestures, images, patterns, and events that convey meaning, which would include the

method of indirect communication, which was a central aspect of this study, and was the area in

which this research was conducted.

Indirect Communication

Communication is a process by which information is exchanged, requiring a sender, a

message, and a receiver. Communication theory suggests that effective communication takes

place when the message sent across by the conveyer is clear and easily comprehended by the

receiver and a relevant response is fed back to the one who conveyed the message (Littlejohn et

al., 2017).

From the viewpoint of psychology, communication is not simply the flow of information

from the sender to the receiver (direct communication), but also includes the thoughts and

feelings of the sender (indirect communication), which the sender tries to share with the receiver,

and includes the feedback of the receiver after he decodes the information (Braithwaite, 2021).

There are two methods by which exchange of information can be accomplished: directly,

which conveys knowledge by way of logic and reason, where the author’s intentions are obvious;

or indirectly, which hides or camouflages the speaker’s true intentions and conveys knowledge

“by way of story, narrative, and symbol” (Fraser, 2020, p. 4). For example, one can say, ‘please

close the window,’ or one can say, ‘it sure is cold in here.’ The first example is the direct form of

communication and the second represents an indirect form of communication.

According to Mooney (1997), communicating straightforward beliefs is not problematic.

For example, if someone says it is sunny in Florida, or that a neighbor has been unbelievably

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 40

rude, unless there is reason to doubt the speaker’s character, or any irony in the speaker’s voice,

a person will believe what they are being told. Thus, “the transmission will be direct and

uncomplicated by the need for interpretation or worries about unresolved ambiguities” (Mooney,

1997, p. 132). On the other hand, if someone states that they have just become a grandmother,

this simple comment is open to interpretations as to what being a grandmother means to that

person – whether it is good or bad, or whether that person is happy or sad about this experience –

and may evoke questions from the recipient. In this case, the transmission is indirect and requires

clarification.

Yeo (1981) provided another way of thinking about direct and indirect communication by

using the analogy of pain. Pain can be understood through a second-hand experience, as when

the information available is based on someone else’s description of the pain. Pain can also be

understood through first-hand experience. Once someone has experienced pain for themselves,

they no longer need to rely on someone else’s description. Yeo (1981) states that how someone

arrives at this understanding is “like the difference between imagining and experiencing

something” (p. 101). Kierkegaard (2009) warned of “the infinite difference which exists between

understanding something in possibility and understanding something in actuality” (p. 202).

Kierkegaard went on to state, “The fact is that when I understand something in possibility, I do

not become essentially changed. I remain in the old ways and make use of my imagination; when

it becomes actuality, then it is I who am changed” (Kierkegaard, 2009, p. 202). Turnbull (2009)

explained that this type of communication is a form of ambiguity which Kierkegaard would have

considered as indirect communication. The question then arises as to who is responsible for

making sure the message is understood.

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 41

According to communication theory, the burden of understanding the message relies on

the sender being clear and concise in order for the listener to correctly interpret the message. If a

misunderstanding occurs, the fault tends to rest on the sender (Littlejohn et al., 2017). There

could also be a problem with the medium through which the message was conveyed, creating

noise or distraction (Littlejohn et al.). With indirect communication, however, the opposite

appears to be true, as “the burden [of effective communication] seems to rest on those who are

indirect” (Tannen, 1994, p. 102). According to Joyce (2012), it is seen as the responsibility of the

indirect communicator to convey information, and the responsibility of the listener to understand

it. There is nothing wrong with using either direct or indirect communication. The problem

occurs when there are differences in strategies, expectations, or understanding within a particular

situation.

According to Fraser (2020), indirect communication can be defined as a “veiled or hidden

approach to communication that intends to impart capability rather than information” (p. 140).

Edward Mooney (2007) defined direct communication as communicating using words. Direct

communication is information that is understandable on its face with no need for reflection on

the part of the recipient; whereas, indirect communication requires filtering and reflection to

interpret the meaning (Mooney, 2007; Peace Corps, 2022). For Garrett (2012) the only clear way

to define indirect communication is that “it is not direct communication (p. 332). A more

comprehensive definition was suggested by Parmelee (2015) as “the use of literary devices

and/or tropes to communicate meaning through an intellectual sleight of hand that encourages

receivers to utilize inwardness and double-reflection to determine the sender’s true meaning” (p.

27). It has direction, in that it is designed to elicit a response caused by questions, suggestions,

and models, as opposed to simply stating the facts (Sowers, 2021).

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 42

There are four schools of thought with regard to indirect communication. First, indirect

communication is used in nonverbal activities such as body language, facial expression, tone of

voice, and/or gestures, in order act out what a person is thinking or feeling. Second, indirect

communication is used as a more nuanced tone within an intercultural or business situation in

order to build mutual trust and understanding, where, for example, a statement in an indirect

style says one thing, but implies another meaning, often to avoid embarrassment or conflict

(Joyce, 2012) or to maintain harmony and save face (Peace Corps, 2022; Gunta, 2015). Third,

indirect communication can be used to encourage the receiver of a message to engage with and

think through the issues being presented (Turnbull, 2009). Finally, indirect communication can

include features of language such as irony, satire, metaphor, and humor (Fraser, 2020;

Kierkegaard, 2000).

In considering the relationship between direct and indirect communication, for it is

suggested that one does exist, it appears that instead of being mutually exclusive, there is a

continuum between direct and indirect communication (Fraser, 2020). This continuum between

direct and indirect communication is also the continuum between knowledge and what

Kierkegaard refers to as realization (Kierkegaard, 1967-1978; McPherson, 2001).

Søren Kierkegaard was the first to explore and coin the concept of ‘indirect

communication’ (and its application) as it applies to the field of communication. Kierkegaard’s

perspective on communication was that the communication of knowledge comes by way of

direct communication (Fraser, 2020), where the speaker is responsible for clear communication;

however, in opposition to communication theory, the burden of understanding the message falls

on the recipient to interpret. Indirect communication; conveys meaning not just by the words; but

by nonverbal behaviors, tone of voice, pauses, and silence (Ting-Toomey, 1999), as well as

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 43

implication, understatement, innuendo, and figures of speech, requiring a widely shared

understanding of the context of the communication (Joyce, 2012). Context plays a much more

nuanced and internal role in indirect communication than direct communication; however, the

burden still rests on the recipient to interpret, deduce, or perceive the meaning (Turnbull, 2009;

Mooney, 2007).

In his Journals and Papers, Kierkegaard (1967-1978) proposed that all communication

consists of four interconnected elements: the object (the topic), the communicator, the receiver,

and the communication. Herrmann (2008) expounded on this idea by explaining that “the object,

or topic, is the exclusive matter of focus in the communication of knowledge, and neither a

particular communicator nor a particular receiver is of importance” (p. 76). According to

Kierkegaard (2000), this kind of direct communication is impersonal. It is how the message is

transmitted that is important to Kierkegaard. The how is the defining characteristic of indirect

communication. Before turning to Kierkegaard’s approach to indirect communication, it is

important to understand Kierkegaard’s reason for utilizing the methodology of indirect

communication as his tool of choice.

Kierkegaard’s History and Background

To understand Kierkegaard, it is important to be aware of the context in which he was

writing. As a Danish Christian theologian, Kierkegaard became distressed with his own Christian

community. He was convinced that his countrymen “believed that they were Christians because

they lived in a “Christian nation”” (Parmelee, 2015, p. 25). For Kierkegaard, this meant that the

actions of Christians looked no different from the actions of secular society. Torrance (2016)

argued that Christian intellectuals were promoting a way of reading the Bible that prevented

readers from being affected, challenged, and convicted by its message. He further suggested that

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 44

Christian intellectuals were focused on objective truth with little consideration toward the more

subjective faith-filled truth (Torrance, 2016). Against this backdrop, Kierkegaard insisted that

there should be no difference between a person’s life of faith and the Christian life. For

Kierkegaard it was entirely disingenuous for the Christian to pretend that Scripture is not a

witness to God, such that one could live in both the secular world as well as the world of the

church (Torrance). The Christian life comes with a duty to witness to the truth (Torrance, 2016).

It was this duty that Kierkegaard felt was being ignored by the Christians in Denmark.

For Kierkegaard, Scripture was being treated as a source of intellectual amusement

(Torrance, 2016). Thus, Kierkegaard’s mission was simply to “introduce Christianity into

Christendom” (Kierkegaard, 1991, p. 36). Kierkegaard felt that the church members’ knowledge

lacked truth, and that the only way to lead them to true faith was to make them believe that

Kierkegaard thought they were saved and then lead them into a knowledge that would bring

them to true conversion (Ferreira, 2009; Yeo, 1981; Fraser, 2020). Kierkegaard chose to eschew

direct communication of the facts and pointing out to people what they should do, in favor of a

less direct approach. Rose and Halliday (2019) suggested that Kierkegaard sought to awaken the

social club of Christians with the “shock of Truth through indirect but powerful communication

of the Gospel” (p. 3), in order to assist his fellow churchgoers to really experience Christ (Fraser,

2020). To do this, he used a different communication approach, one that helped them realize who

they really were and provoked them to examine their own life. This approach he called indirect

communication.

In Concluding Unscientific Postscript, Kierkegaard noted that “knowledge and doctrine

can be communicated directly, but that ethical and religious truths can only be communicated

indirectly” (Herrmann, 2008, p. 75). Kierkegaard suggested that indirect communication was not

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 45

about knowledge, but about realization (Kierkegaard, 1967-1978). Realization, as Kierkegaard

used it, was the process of coming to terms with the ethics of one’s own life (Tietjen, 2013),

thus, producing a transformative effect on how individuals communicate and receive messages

about their faith, bringing it to life in themselves, as opposed to a more mechanistic list of do’s

and don’ts (Sowers, 2021).

As part of his indirect communication methodology, Kierkegaard employed literary

devices such as humor, irony, and pseudonym to move people through the process that would

take them from knowledge to meaning, through inward examination or reflection, and finally to

emerge into what Kierkegaard termed capability, or the ability to live an ethical life that aligned

with their religious faith (Fraser, 2020; McPherson, 2001; Tietjen, 2013).

Though numerous scholars have discussed Kierkegaard’s writings in-depth, there is still

no consensus on the exact definition of indirect communication. Kierkegaard himself was not

consistent and was even ambiguous in how he used the term (Fraser, 2020; Garrett, 2012;

Aumann, 2010; Turnbull, 2009). Indeed, Kierkegaard appears to have made ambiguity a central

feature of his method (Garrett, 2012; Turnbull, 2009).

Indirect Communication -- How/What

Kierkegaard’s strategy of indirect communication arises out of the concept of what is

communicated, and how it is communicated. His focus was on the meaning of communication

itself (Kierkegaard, 1967-1978). For Kierkegaard, coming to a meaningful understanding of both

what was being communicated, and how it was being communicated was important (Fraser,

2020). Thus, “when one is concerned not simply with communicating something, but about

communicating it in such a way as to facilitate a certain kind of understanding, the form of the

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 46

communication becomes very important” (Yeo, 1981, p. 5). Kierkegaard’s strategy of indirect

communication arises out of such concern.

In the process of communication, it is common to use words without ever asking what the

words mean, or even what the words are understood to mean. People simply take the meaning of

the words for granted. Yeo (1981) discussed this concept and suggested that, because individuals

are brought up in a language, they immediately attach, by association, a meaning at face value

given to a word that is in common use. However, on reflection about context, both internal and

external, people often discover that they likely did not mean what they said. There is a movement

away from simply communicating information, to communicating meaning, “not just what is

communicated, but how it is communicated” (Yeo, p. 5). For example, when someone uses the

word ‘happiness,’ it can have a totally different meaning from one person to the next, as each

person may have a different view of what happiness is. People who have visited countries where

the children have no toys, find them to be just as happy, if not more so, than children who are

surrounded by toys. Thus, how one uses words becomes more important than what is

communicated.

According to Fraser (2020), there is a difference between technological ways of knowing

and the indirect communication approach, in that “the technological is focused on what is

known, while the indirect method is focused on how one lives” (p. 80). In essence, Fraser was

saying that too much time is spent on the object of communication--the what, without enough

consideration of the medium upon which it is communicated--the how (Fraser, 2020). Rather

than trying to win someone to his point of view directly, Kierkegaard wanted his readers to

reflect critically upon their own point of view. Yeo (1981) considered this “dialectical cunning”

(p. 29) which is occasioned by the consideration that “how something is understood is at least as

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 47

important as what is understood” (p. 29). Jeyaraj (2014) suggested that the direct communication

of what may not easily communicate the indirect communication of how when it comes to

“experiential knowledge such as surmises, hunches, and feelings of plausibility” (p. 195). He

went on to suggest that one cannot make discoveries without indirectly experiencing something

for oneself.

Fox (2002) provided a good example of the difficulties of using direct communication to

communicate experiences involving perception and/or hunches, when it comes to curing

concrete. Because knowing when concrete has cured and is ready to be sawed is a ‘craft,’ it

cannot be taught merely by explaining the process. For example, an experienced engineer could

determine if the concrete is ready by scratching the surface with a nail. “If the scratch looks a

certain way, it’s ready” (p. 379). The same situation occurs when a blacksmith must rely on the

colors of the flames to determine temperature. As steel begins to approach forging temperatures,

it will start to glow red, orange, then yellow and eventually, white as it reaches higher

temperatures (Nzoiwu, 2020). Since both of these processes are not an exact science, they are

very difficult to teach. One cannot simply communicate the what of the process without

experiencing the how.

According to Jeyaraj (2014), such explanations may not easily provide insights and must

go beyond direct communication from a textbook and be demonstrated. Someone becomes an

expert, not simply from factual knowledge, but by being a person who is able to offer meaningful

and imaginative solutions that non-experts cannot. Polanyi and Prosch (1975) stated it this way,

“The popular conception of science says that science is a collection of observable facts that

anybody can verify for himself. We have seen that this is not true in the case of expert

knowledge” (p. 184), like that needed in determining when concrete is ready or what color is

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 48

correct for forging steel. Kierkegaard suggested that simply overhearing someone explaining

something to someone else can be a convincing and persuasive way to indirectly discover

something for oneself (Craddock, 2002; Parmelee, 2015; Fraser, 2020).

Kierkegaard came to regard indirect communication as a powerful approach to

communicating truth when he was standing in a graveyard and overheard a conversation between

a grandfather and his grandson over the newly dug grave of their beloved son and father. Hidden

behind a bush, Kierkegaard listened to the older man plead with the younger man to follow

Christ. Kierkegaard was moved by this conversation, even though the message was addressed to

someone else. Later he reflected that it had such power because the message was not directed at

him (Fraser, 2020; Parmelee, 2015). This experience allowed Kierkegaard to create a distance

between the communicator, the message, and himself, allowing time for reflection on the

message he overheard. He could lower his defenses and consider the message for himself

without feeling like he was being judged or persuaded. In this instance, it was how the message

was communicated that was as important as what the message communicated.

Kierkegaard came to consider the use of this type of indirect communication as an art

form. According to Fraser (2020), “Art is a medium for imaginative and indirect forms of

communication” (p. 10). It is not just reason that makes people aware of truth, but also a person’s

heart and feelings, which is the purpose of art. Fraser wrote, “Art can bring us into authentic

confrontations with ourselves through indirect means” (p. 184). It is the literary techniques [art]

such as humor, irony, stories, hinting, suggestion, and other devises of indirect communication,

that ultimately make one capable of living an authentic life. Kierkegaard used indirect

communication to accomplish this by utilizing “deception, humor, irony, ambiguity, fictional

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 49

narratives, and ‘imaginative constructions’” (Aumann, 2019, p. 9). Parmelee (2015) refers to

these as “rhetorical tropes” and includes sarcasm, metaphor, and deception as art (p. 24).

Indirect Communication as Art

Kierkegaard understood indirect communication to be hidden, or even, at some level,

deceptive, such that one was put into a situation of discovering the hidden, or actual meaning

apart from the words (Fraser, 2020). To do this, he needed a set of tools. Those tools included,

but were not limited to, fictional narrative, irony, humor, and constructions of the imagination

(Aumann, 2010). Other such devices would include illusions, riddles, hinting, insinuation,

suggestion, intimation, sarcasm, and allegory and were considered art (Fraser, 2020; Garrett,

2012). First, Kierkegaard would have differentiated indirect communication as an art rather than

a science because the outcome was not predictable due to the uniqueness of individuals. Second,

Kierkegaard understood that, much like studying a painting, for example, the process was not

uniform, and required the listener to be an active participant in the discovery of meaningful

knowledge (Kierkegaard, 1992). The listener is the one who must disentangle the meaning from

the message (Kierkegaard, 1972). Two artistic methods employed by Kierkegaard that bear

further reflection are his use of pseudonyms, and the Socratic or maieutic method.

To prevent his writings from directly influencing his readers, Kierkegaard often wrote

under pseudonyms, with each pseudonym approaching a topic from a different point of view,

giving the appearance of contradiction within his writings. Kierkegaard’s overarching goal was

to push the reader to confront themselves by being truthful and honest with themselves; he did

not want his reader to be influenced by knowing that he was the writer. Kierkegaard believed

there is a coherency that emerges when a reader is pushed to take responsibility for discovering

the truth of the message for themselves (Sowers, 2021; Taylor, 1975; Kierkegaard, 2000).

According to Sowers (2021), the use of pseudonyms was intentional in meeting this objective.

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 50

Kierkegaard sought to have his readers deal with the content of his presentations on their

own, subjective terms. He believed this was important since he could juxtapose various

pseudonyms against one other, to create different voices and different points of view (Herrmann,

2008). He wrote under the names of Climatus, Anti-Climatus, Johannes de Silentio, and others,

with the intent of taking his readers through various existential stages: aesthetic, ethical, and

religious. Kierkegaard wanted his readers to view his pseudonyms as separate individuals,

“living and writing from their own experiences, philosophical worldviews, and religious

positions” (Herrmann, p. 79). Turnbull (2009) argued that Kierkegaard’s reason for doing this

was specifically because indirect communication could achieve what direct communication

could not; in that, according to Parmelee (2015), it could veil the meaning behind the different

characters’ points of view. Hiding his identity behind the pseudonym allowed the learner to

discover their own meaning from the context--a meaning that was not more vague or ambiguous,

but one that was intentional, and made more so by the ownership of the reader, gained through

the process of active reflective discovery (Garrett, 2012). To keep discovery from being simply

ambiguous, Kierkegaard understood the need for some form of guidance that would not conflict

with his philosophy of indirect communication. For that, Kierkegaard used pseudonyms as part

of the Socratic, or maieutic process.

The maieutic process, as Kierkegaard saw it, was essentially a coaching process, similar

to what a midwife does in assisting a woman giving birth (Fraser, 2020; Johansson, 2019). The

process is growth, movement, and birth. An idea begins to grow, moving a person in a certain

direction, and culminating in the consciousness (Kierkegaard, 1985; Garrett, 2012). Kierkegaard

believed in the uniqueness of individuals and wanted them to recognize that they were unique

(Herrmann, 2008). That uniqueness would result in each individual discovering meaningful

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 51

knowledge distinct to themselves (Fraser, 2020; Aumann, 2019). This self-discovery will,

according to Kierkegaard, lead to action by way of reflection (Aumann, 2019; Fraser, 2020;

Herrmann, 2008). It was by using the maieutic method of injecting questions from different

perspectives, or voices, into the process, that Kierkegaard believed one would become that

coach, or, as Socrates put it, the midwife (Johansson, 2019), helping people to birth truth leading

to action that they had an understanding of, and a capacity to do, or as Kierkegaard liked to call

it, capability (Herrmann).

Capability

Kierkegaard’s idea of art applies to capability as art seeks to “facilitate a capacity that can

only by set in motion by the act of self-discovery” (Fraser, 2020, p. 189). Kierkegaard suggested

that capability was not knowledge, and was only developed by indirect communication (Fraser,

2020; Herrmann, 2008). Knowledge is the domain of objectivity, facts, and figures. It tends to be

explicit, and easily accessible (Fraser, 2020). For example, when this author first started teaching

English in Taiwan, most students, when asked to read in English, could do so with very few

mistakes. When asked about what they had read, however, very few of those students had any

idea about what they had read. They could read the words perfectly, but they had no

comprehension of what they were reading or how to use it. It is when moving into how to use

knowledge that capability is encountered.

According to Fraser (2020), knowledge is necessary, but information alone is not a

prerequisite for transformation and does not enable a person to change. An example of this

would be in examining the behavior of someone who is interested in quitting smoking. The

person could have read four articles, two books, watched a movie on the health risks of smoking,

and taken a class on quitting smoking, yet still does not quit smoking. According to

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 52

Kierkegaard’s way of thinking, this person would have substituted knowledge for capability. The

knowledge of the detriments of smoking did not lead to change.

Capability, as Kierkegaard saw it, involved ethics, truth, capacity, and actuality.

Actuality, or actualizing is the process of bringing the ethical into the light (Herrmann, 2008).

Kierkegaard was suggesting that capability was about producing a passion to live by the self-

knowledge, or truth, that was realized (Herrmann, 2008). In essence, capability is internalized

knowledge. Using the example above of the smoker, developing capability involves the shifting

of knowledge, which is external, obvious, and less personal, to self-knowledge, which is internal,

not obvious, and deeply personal (Fraser, 2020; Herrmann, 2008; McPherson, 2001). Thus,

“more than transference of knowledge, the indirect approach conveys the capability to embody

the belief we encounter” (Fraser, 2020, p. 273). Fraser stated that, capability “is not merely the

change of mind but a change of will” (p. 205).

Kierkegaard wrote from a pastoral perspective; however, much of what he wrote applied

to education as well. Often, educators fall back on direct communication methods while their

students, particularly in today’s world, are highly adept at, and immersed in technology, such

that they are easily distracted by something more interesting than the acquisition of meaningless

knowledge. According to Fraser (2020) it is the use of indirect communication, in the form of

pseudonyms, poetic authorship, and the Socratic method of midwifery, that help people move to

capability. He stated, “The salient factor in indirect communication involves the communication

of capability, rather than the communication of additional information” (p. 162). The purpose of

indirect communication is to “provoke thought, stir emotions, and engage the imagination, rather

than impart objective information” (Fraser, 2020, p. 32). As Jean Piaget put it, “The principal

goal of education is to create men who are capable of doing new things, not simply repeating

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 53

what other generations have done--men who are creative, inventive, and discoverers”

(Silverman, 1980, p. 110). Kierkegaard felt so strongly about the need for developing capability

that he proposed the idea that “all education of capability requires indirect communication”

(Kierkegaard, 1967-1978, pp. 282, Vol 1).

Direct and indirect communication are not mutually exclusive; therefore, acquiring

knowledge and using that knowledge to create meaning, and thus capability, functions as part of

a continuum. In order to understand that continuum, the next section will explore the educational

philosophies of behaviorism, and constructivism, as it relates to moving from knowledge to

meaning, and the role indirect communication can play in improving the quality of meaningful

learning.

Behaviorist and Constructivist Philosophies of Education

The behaviorist philosophy has its roots in the objectivist philosophy that information

exists outside of the mind. It is objective, absolute, and exists whether observed or not (Fitch,

2018). It is simply awaiting discovery. Objectivist philosophy suggests that information is the

currency of knowledge (Bada & Olusegun, 2015). Like objectivism, the behaviorist philosophy

is also positivist in nature and is largely based on the work of Edward Thorndyke. Thorndyke

was an early 20

century educator who posited that educational ability was largely a product of

genetics, and that the design of an education system needed to be mechanistic in nature,

measurable, and scientific in its approach (Tomlinson, 1997). Thorndyke developed the law of

effect, which suggested that any action followed by pleasant consequences was likely to be

repeated. His work was the predecessor of the studies by Ivan Pavlov involving rats, chickens,

and dogs that involved a stimulus and response (Tomlinson, 1997). For example, Pavlov would

ring a bell and then provide his subject, a dog, a treat. After repeating this multiple times, the dog

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 54

would begin to salivate every time it heard the bell. This process was known as classic

conditioning (Akpan, 2020).

In 1937, B. F. Skinner, building on classic conditioning theory, developed the theory of

operant conditioning. In operant conditioning, the subject is given a task to perform. When the

subject performed the task correctly, they received a reward. If the subject performed the task

incorrectly, they were punished. Thus, Skinner theorized that extrinsic motivation to perform,

either through fear of punishment, or in anticipation of reward, coupled with the appropriate

supply of knowledge, was the primary means of achieving education (Akpan, 2020). Thus, the

basis for the behaviorist philosophy suggested that a students’ learning process is simply the

formation of habit (McLeod, 2020). This is accomplished through the process of repetition, the

repeated reproduction of the information provided by the instructor, and memorization (Hinduja,

2021), enabled by punishment or reward (Bada & Olusegun, 2015). Behaviorist theory further

suggested that it is only achievable by students who were genetically fit to learn (Tomlinson,

1997).

Behaviorism further posits that learning is a mechanical process that works with the

transfer-receiving method, or lecture method. Behaviorist theory assumes that the learner is a

blank slate and that “students are empty containers that can be filled” (Hinduja, 2021, p. 112).

The student is rewarded for the right answers, which is important for conditioning the learners’

behavior (Hinduja, 2021; Bada & Olusegun, 2015).

There are several significant weaknesses in the behaviorist philosophy. First, there is the

failure of moving knowledge to meaning as it applied to everyday life. Second, behaviorism

failed to explain the development of human languages, and finally, behaviorism failed to explain

the effect of the environment in shaping human behavior (ipl.org, 2022). Largely as a result of

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 55

these weaknesses, the broader objectives of learning, specifically recognizing the cognitive

differences between animals and humans were missed, such as individual freedom, socio-

economic development, and social justice (Hinduja, 2021).

The failures of behaviorism gave rise to constructivism. Constructivism holds that people

construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experience and reflecting

on those experiences, and that people are active creators of that knowledge, rather than just

passive learners. Learners use their previous knowledge as a foundation upon which to build new

experiences, incorporating new information into their pre-existing knowledge (Brau, 2018; Hein,

1991; Bada & Olusegun, 2015; von Glasersfeld, 2012; wgu.edu, 2020a). For the constructivist,

the construction of meaningful knowledge is, by nature, an intersubjective interpretation process

where the learner connects the new information being taught with their own past experiences and

cultural background (Brau, 2018). To understand the importance that constructivism plays in

communication theory, one must examine it through the lens of psychology.

Constructivism postulates seven principles: (1) that knowledge is constructed, meaning

that knowledge is built upon other knowledge; (2) learning involves constructing meaning and

systems of meaning; (3) learning is an active process, not a passive process, in which learners

must engage with the world in order to construct meaning; (4) learning is a social activity and

recognizes that social interaction is the key to learning; (5) learning is contextual and is

connected to things we already know, not isolated facts and theories; (6) learning exists in the

mind and must involve activities for the mind, not just the hands; and (7) knowledge is personal,

so the way people learn and engage with the world will be different for each person (wgu.edu,

2020a; Hein, 1991). According to Jean Piaget (2008), “Each time one teaches a child something

he could have discovered himself, that child is kept from inventing it and consequently from

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 56

understanding it completely” (p. 27). In essence, this is the basis of the constructivist theory, as it

aims to guide the student in the right direction, with the ultimate goal of letting the student

discover the meaning, by using his or her own reasoning.

As with any learning theory, there are several disadvantages that might make it difficult

for some students. First, it is difficult for the teacher to assess whether the student has reached

the correct conclusion; thus, there is a chance that the student will develop the wrong conclusion.

Second, since the student is the one who draws the conclusions, the teacher may need to

implement different evaluation methods, which can be time-consuming. Third, constructivist

learning strategies need to be adapted to the student’s level because; the previous knowledge

gained by the student may not necessarily be on the same level as other students. Finally, some

constructivist learning strategies may not be compatible with certain subjects or a standardized

curriculum and do not fit well with standardized tests (Collins, 2020; Drew, 2022).

The fundamental differences between behaviorism and constructivism are that

behaviorism is centered around the transmission of knowledge from the instructor to the student

(passive student and a top-down or instructor-centered approach); whereas, constructivism is

focused on the construction of knowledge by the student, where the instructor functions as a

guide, or mentor, in an interactive participative learning process (Zhang, 2019), or as

Kierkegaard would describe it, the midwife or using a maieutic method.

The theorists who were largely responsible for the emergence of constructivism included

Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980), Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934),

American philosopher and psychologist John Dewey (1859-1952), and finally, Ernst von

Glasersfeld (1917-2010) (McLeod, 2020; Brau, 2018). According to Brau (2018), the theorists

formulated their theories in real classroom experiences and not from experiments in a lab.

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 57

Generally, constructivism can be divided into two main types: radical, or cognitive

constructivism. Radical constructivism, embraced by Piaget and von Glasersfeld, focuses on

learning new information by connecting it to things one already knows. Social constructivism,

introduced by Vygotsky, focuses on the collaborative, or social, aspect of learning (Brau, 2018).

Piaget focused on the interaction of experiences and ideas in the creation of new knowledge, or

cognitive constructionism, while Vygotsky explored the concept that learning is taught socially

and culturally, alongside peers, and thus affects the assimilation of knowledge, known as social

constructivism (Huang, 2021). The primary concern was in how to best guide learners in their

construction of that knowledge.

Although both Piaget and Vygotsky contributed significant ideas to learning theory, it

was Dewey who combined Piaget’s focus on the cognitive aspect with Vygotsky’s focus on

social learning (wgu.edu, 2020a; Brau, 2018; Mayer, 2008). Dewey emphasized inquiry and the

integration of real world and classroom activities (Huang, 2021) and is often seen as the

proponent of learning by doing, believing that humans learn through a hands-on approach

(Lorina, 2022). He believed that each child was active, needed to interact with other people,

work cooperatively with their peers and adults, and learned best when in natural settings (Lorina,

2022; Williams, 2017). One of Dewey’s most recognized quotes is: “If you have doubts about

how learning happens, engage in sustained inquiry: study, ponder, consider alternative

possibilities, and arrive at your belief grounded in evidence” (Reece, 2013, p. 320).

Dewey had a profound influence on the Chinese and their philosophy of education. He

lived, traveled, and lectured in China from 1919 to 1921. Two PhD students, who studied under

Dewey at Columbia University, were prominent Chinese educators who adapted Dewey’s

educational concepts to Chinese culture; and promoted his ideas throughout China. After the

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 58

May Fourth demonstrations of 1919, the New Culture Movement was established, which sought

to modernize China through cultural ideas borrowed from other countries, especially Western

ones (Zhang & Sheese, 2017). During Dewey’s two years, he gave approximately 200 lectures

across China and became a well-known and highly respected educator among China’s elite

aristocracy, “attaining something akin to superstar status” (Zhang & Sheese, p. 401). According

to Zhang and Sheese (2017), “thousands of people attended his lectures; numerous newspapers

carried his speeches; and a book series of his lectures was published and sold over 10,000

copies” (p. 401). During the time Dewey was lecturing, Mao Zedong was an assistant librarian at

Beijing University and was heavily influenced by Dewey’s educational philosophy (Zhang &

Sheese, 2017).

Dewey’s relation to Confucius was a factor in Dewey’s influence. Wang and Liu (2009)

asserted that Confucius and Dewey shared some similar beliefs about education. Both shared a

belief in the need for education. Both believed in promoting equal educational opportunities for

all, without discrimination. Both emphasized the importance of reflection as a means of

enhancing the learning process (Wang & Liu, 2009). Dr. Cai Yuanpei, president of Beijing

University (1916-1927) referred to Dewey as the “Western Confucius” in his speech at Dewey’s

sixtieth birthday celebration (Wang & Liu, p. 30).

Zhang and Sheese (2017) point out that even though Chinese scholars embraced the idea

of “apply what one’s learned” (p. 402), many Chinese educators saw the country’s problems as a

result of education in the Confucian tradition; with its emphasis on the study of the virtues of the

ideal man. This model leaned toward allowing a small group of people to enter a more elite

society; by emphasizing high-performance exams. While this enhanced government efficiency, it

was also seen as a means of controlling society. This was directly contrary to Dewey’s ideas of

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 59

constructivism and his belief in the education of the common man (Zhang & Sheese, 2017). The

system of memorization and teaching to the test were advocated in place of Dewey’s theory of

‘learning by doing.’

In the 1950s, Mao Zedong turned his back on Dewey’s educational philosophies, turning

instead to the Soviet Union. Dewey’s theories were strongly condemned by the Soviet Union and

China soon adopted the attitude of the Soviet Union by following the philosophies of Marxism

and Leninism (Zhang & Sheese, 2017). Dewey strongly opposed the concepts of “class struggle”

and “revolution” (Chuankao, 2009, p. 144), both of which were advocated in China at the time of

the cold war (Zhang & Sheese, 2017). Currently, graduates of Chinese universities express a

desire to move away from “test-taking machines and slaves-to-learning” (p. 406) along with

being forced to memorize knowledge rather than allowed to reflectively pursue their own

interests (Su et al., 2003). Su (1996) recognized that contemporary education is still dominated

by the elements of Confucian tradition, that emphasize examination and memorization. Zhang

and Sheese (2017) argued that changing the current education system has been an almost

impossible task, due to the strength of the Confucian tradition and the Chinese culture.

Up to this point, discussion has been largely about education philosophy in the Western

paradigm. Discussion has centered around the effect of constructivism as it relates to Dewey and

his influence on Chinese education. It seems valuable to now explore Eastern educational

philosophy, primarily as it relates to Taiwanese culture and orientation.

Taiwan Educational History

In order to understand Taiwan’s educational philosophy, it is necessary to take a brief

look at Taiwan’s past. According to Davidson’s (2003) history of Taiwan, during the Japanese

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 60

period school attendance for Taiwanese children increased from 3.8% in 1904 to 71.3% in 1943,

making literacy common among the majority of Taiwanese (Davidson, 2003). After Taiwan

came under the control of the Republic of China in 1945, education in Taiwan became an

amalgamation of both the Japanese and Chinese system. In 1949, the leadership of the

Nationalist government, under Chiang Kai-shek, began to reconstruct the education of Taiwan,

with the intention of creating a new national identity, a process referred to by Taiwanese scholar

Ting-Hong Wong as “national colonialism” (Wong, 2020, p. 160). In the early 1950s the

government decreed that Mandarin was to be the only language taught in schools, with the local

Taiwanese dialect (Hok-lo) forbidden from even casual conversations outside the classrooms

(Wong, p. 166).

In the late 1950s Taiwan experienced a severe shortage of schooling facilities creating an

outcry from the Taiwanese locals, as well immigrants to the island. The government yielded to

pressure from the Taiwanese and enacted a series of educational reforms, allowing for the

expansion of private schools; however, colonizers from China took over the private education

sector from the Taiwanese and controlled the curriculum, proliferating the “indoctrination of the

state nationalistic ideology” (Wong, p. 184). This substantially compromised Taiwan’s freedom

in its educational mission and pedagogy. It was also in the 1950s that Dewey’s educational

philosophies were condemned in favor of Marxism and Leninism, moving away from the

philosophy of ‘learning by doing’ towards an emphasis on exams and memorization.

With this history in mind, recognizing that the background of the Taiwanese was all but

erased from their educational system (Wong, 2020), it is understandable that the Taiwanese

educational philosophy has its roots in the Chinese philosophy of education.

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 61

Eastern Education Philosophy

Hassan and Jamaludin (2010) suggest that Eastern philosophies are obtained from the

teachings of Eastern religion, such as Buddhism, Confucianism, Hinduism, and Taoism, where

the transmission of knowledge is one-way. In the Eastern classroom, teachers are fully

responsible for class effectiveness (Hassan & Jamaludin). Students are not trained or encouraged

to voice their own views or perspectives, questions are rhetorical and are brought up for the

teacher to answer, and students learn from memorizing facts rather than focusing on

understanding (Hassan & Jamaludin, 2010).

In studying the writings of Xueji (學記), Di (2017) discusses three common fundamental

philosophies, or themes of Eastern thought that affect teachers’ paradigms of higher education.

First, teaching should have a social and humanistic focus, be aligned with nature, cultivate, and

transform habits, and be concerned with the collective wellbeing of the nation. Second, teaching

should focus on the formation of character (Di, 2017) such as respect, aspiration, honesty,

humbleness, dedication, trust, and credibility (Xu & McEwan, 2016). Third, the role of teachers

is to be revered (Di, 2017; Hassan & Jamaludin, 2010), “not so much for their content

knowledge and expertise, but for their exemplary virtue, their modeling, and their impact on the

entire culture, people, and state” (Di, 2017, p. 448). For Xueji, “the first and foremost purpose of

teaching and learning is not subject and content-focused, but rather society and universe-

oriented” (Di, 2017, p. 446). The teacher is seen as “the maker and keeper of humanity” (Di, p.

449).

There are several differences between Eastern and Western philosophies and schools of

thought. According to Francisco (2018), the main principle of Eastern philosophy is collectivism,

thus the emphasis is on unity, where life is perceived as round. On the other hand, Western

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philosophy is based on individualism, and due to the West’s Christian influence, there has to be a

beginning and an end in order to find meaning, thus, life is perceived as linear. Western

philosophy is logical, scientific, and rational compared to the East’s concept of eternal and

recurring. Both philosophies center on virtues; however, Western philosophy focuses more on

ethics. Eastern philosophy is also more about the spiritual, while Western philosophy is more of

a hands-on style. “The difference is the “I” of the West, and the “We” of the East, as one focuses

on finding truth and meaning” (Francisco, 2018, p. 1). Thus, when it comes to education, there

tends to be significant differences in concepts, thinking patterns, and teaching methods.

According to Yuan He

(2021), Chinese education tends to attach more importance to the

construction of a students’ basic knowledge, than the development of their creativity. For the

Chinese, the main purpose of a students’ education is to increase their knowledge (He, Yuan,

2021).The teacher repeatedly explains the information so that the student can successfully pass

the exam. The student is not required, or asked, to think for themselves. Knowledge is passively

accepted, with no time for reflection or independent thinking. Because of this emphasis, Chinese

students tend to have excellent memorization skills, but are poor at presentation, hands-on skills,

and the capability of using the memorized knowledge outside of the classroom (He, Yuan).

Western education tends to be student-centered, with the goal of capability. The teacher

acts more like a guide, or facilitator, allowing them to control their own learning process and

share in the responsibility of applying the knowledge learned in the classroom (He, Yuan, 2021;

Hassan & Jamaludin, 2010). This is accomplished by utilizing educational methods such as

discussion, dialogue, group work, projects, and other sources of indirect communication. Yuan

He (2021) observes that Western teachers often provide students with opportunities to compare

For clarity, because the name of the author (He, Y.) is a pronoun, in English, the author will be referred to using

his first and last name (He, Yuan) throughout this work.

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and analyze problems from different perspectives, “which doesn’t require a standard answer” (p.

64). However, Yuan He (2021) points out that teaching in the West also has its own problems.

For example, Yuan He (2021) feels that Western education lacks rigor, students are

undisciplined, and the basic knowledge of Western students is not well-grounded (He, Yuan,

2021).

In addition to the aforementioned differences, Hofstede and Hofstede (2005) measured

seven “Confucian Heritage Cultures” with regard to differences in their educational views and

communication methods. To validate these findings in a more recent context, Jeffery (2022) did

a study in Hong Kong to assess the cultural differences between the teaching methods of Korean

and non-Korean teachers. He discovered that, in particular, three of Hofstede’s dimensions

affected the ability of Eastern educators to apply Western methods of communication and

instruction: saving face, uncertainty avoidance, and power distance (Jeffery, 2022). In the next

few paragraphs, each of these dimensions will be discussed in light of Eastern versus Western

communication philosophies.

Power distance is the way people in a society relate to each other on a hierarchical scale.

A culture that gives deference to a person of authority is a high-power distance culture, and a

culture that values the equal treatment of everyone is a low power distance culture (Hofstede,

1986). High power countries only allow the leaders to make decisions and do not allow low-

ranking individuals or subordinates to challenge superiors. According to the World Population

Review (2022), Taiwan ranks number 58; as a high-power distance culture, which is in the

middle to high range (World Population Review, 2022). This results in teacher-centered

classrooms, where the teacher is the authority and students are not allowed to challenge the

teacher or ask questions. It is one reason why memorization and rote learning are still popular as

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 64

an educational method. Westerners come from a low power distance culture; thus, the Western

teacher feels free to share power with the student, acts as a guide, and helps facilitate a students’

ability to ask questions and take responsibility for their own education.

Uncertainty avoidance deals with a society’s tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity. It

indicates to what extent a culture feels either comfortable or uncomfortable in unstructured

situations and with unpredictability (Hofstede, 1986). Taiwan holds a world ranking of number

86, which is considered very high (World Population Review, 2022). This means that educators

in Taiwan feel very uncomfortable with situations which are novel, unknown, or different from

the usual. Because of this, Taiwan classrooms are highly structured, which does not allow for

constructivist, or problem-based learning environments to flourish, or for the introduction of

indirect communication methods. This culture perpetuates the method of lecture and

memorization as a direct communication approach to learning.

The final dimension, which has the greatest impact on communication methods is that of

saving face. Losing face in Taiwan is equal to losing the respect of others and can be caused by

criticism, embarrassment, or disagreement (Jeffery, 2022). Face is not just about pride. In

Taiwanese culture, if a teacher does not have the answers to a students’ question, the teacher

loses face. If the student asks a question the teacher cannot answer, the student also loses face.

Thus, students are taught not to ask questions and the teacher is expected to provide the answers.

The consequence of Eastern educational philosophy on students’ perception of learning is

interesting. Wang and Byram (2011) identified four perceptions that Eastern cultures hold about

education: (a) Effort learning: learning is always associated with difficulty and is not fun, but

necessary, (b) Memorization learning: connecting memorization to understanding, (c) Reflective

learning: learning requires commitment and is not just acquired, but must be reflected upon, and

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(d) Humble learning: respect to elders and teachers. This finding corresponds with another study

by Dahlin and Watkins (2000) that suggests Taiwanese students think of understanding as a long

process that requires considerable mental effort.

Up to this point, the focus of this section has been on the acquisition of knowledge. Yet,

it seems that knowledge devoid of meaning is somewhat useless. It is important, then, to explore

the process of transforming knowledge into meaning. Therefore, the next section will focus on

the transference of knowledge to meaning in both Western and Eastern cultures.

Transference

As defined above, constructivism focuses on the idea that students actively create

meaningful knowledge through learned experiences, and suggests that the transfer of that

knowledge can be facilitated by involvement in authentic real-world tasks anchored in

meaningful contexts (Macaulay & Cree, 1999; Huang, 2021; Lorina, 2022). In addition to

imparting knowledge, one of the primary goals of education is to ensure that learners can apply

that knowledge in various ways and under different circumstances (Hajian, 2019). Transfer takes

place when a student’s existing knowledge affects the performance of new tasks (Macaulay &

Cree, 1999).

For Kierkegaard, the utilization of indirect communication was critical for students in the

development of transference and selfhood (Kierkegaard, 2000). Manheimer (1977) suggests that

transference allows a teacher to awaken the student through evoking a contrast between

significance and meaning in order to renew the student’s “concern for what is of ultimate value”

(p. 198). This concept is so significant that Macaulay and Cree (1999) would argue that transfer

of learning “is a fact of life and is fundamental to all learning” (p. 185). Hajian (2019) defines

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 66

transfer as the “productive application of prior learning and experiences in novel contexts” (p.

95).

Application of that knowledge requires more than just actively creating and constructing

new knowledge from experience. Students often find transferring knowledge to real-world

situations highly challenging and that transfer may not occur naturally for many students

(Selingo, 2018; Macaulay & Cree, 1999; Hajian, 2019; Hung, 2013). A recent survey from the

Washington Post stated that “college students find the concept of transfer of learning particularly

difficult to grasp” (Selingo, 2018, p. 1). Hung (2013) suggested that when the focus of teaching

and learning is on abstract concepts and memorization, the way that knowledge exhibits itself in

real world situations, or is used to solve real-life problems, is often overlooked.

Although many of the major transfer theories were developed concurrently, it was the

theory of ‘situated learning’ (Lave & Wenger, 1991) that led to a more complete theory of

learning and transfer. According to situated learning, learning and cognition are developed

through purposeful, authentic activities in social contexts. Learning and transfer occur when

learners are given an opportunity to practice and observe in a context with a specific situation

(Hajian, 2019), a process that can take place through participation, even though the learner is not

central to the process (Lave & Wenger, 1991). The theory of situated learning was developed by

Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger in the early 1990s, and followed the work of Dewey, Vygotsky,

and others who claimed that students were more inclined to learn by actively participating in the

learning experience (Brau, 2018; Huang, 2021), as well as by creating meaning from the real

activities of daily living (niu.edu, 2012). Hung (2013) suggested that situational learning is the

bridge between theoretical understanding and the practical application of knowledge.

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One of the obstacles to successful transfer of knowledge is in traditional teaching

practice, where rote memorization of facts and knowledge is taught in abstract concepts, without

attaching meaning or practical usage to a students’ life outside of the classroom. As a result,

teaching practice takes place out of context, “without an understanding of when, where, and how

the knowledge is applied” (Hung, 2013, p. 29). Situational learning is often absent from such a

classroom. Another communication model that can assist in the transfer of knowledge is that of

problem-based learning, which was conceived in response to medical students’ poor performance

and the emphasis on memorization of knowledge in traditional medical education (Hung, 2013).

Problem-based learning enhances students’ learning outcomes by promoting their abilities and

skills in applying knowledge, solving problems, practicing higher order thinking, and self-

directing and reflecting their own learning (Hung, 2013; Mestre, 2002; Macaulay & Cree, 1999;

Kubsch et al., 2020). Reflection is an important aspect of problem-based learning. Though

problem-based learning emphasizes self-directed learning, it does not mean the instructor is not

involved in the students’ learning. Instead, the instructor is situated in the learning and transfer

process as the facilitator, guide, mentor, friend, and motivator (Morrison et al., 2020).

The themes that seem to emerge from the constructivist philosophy are that learning is an

active process for the learner; and is not simply the acquisition of knowledge; but rather the

acquisition of capability. Meaningful knowledge creates the ability to generalize; or apply that

knowledge in differing situations (Hajian, 2019). The process by which capability is obtained is

through reflection, dialogue, and experience, or as Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theory

suggested; acquiring knowledge, reflecting on that knowledge, experimenting with that

knowledge, reflecting on the knowledge gained through experimentation, and incorporating the

meaningful knowledge into one’s life (Morris, 2020; Kolb, 1984).

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According to Kolb (1984), “Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created

through the transformation of experience” (p. 38). Kolb’s (1984) learning cycle was used for

exploring additional techniques as a process for effective transference of knowledge to meaning,

as demonstrated in Figure 1 below.

Figure 1

Kolb’s Learning Cycle, as cited in ISC Medical, 2019

Kolb (1984) suggested that effective learning occurs when an individual progresses through a

cycle of four stages.

1) Concrete experience. This might involve a new experience, situation, concept and/or

the presentation of a situation or concept the student has learned before but is presented in a new

context or in a new way. This phase requires the students to become actively involved in ‘doing’

something. In this instance, the classroom activities could include in-class presentations and

projects, debates and discussion, moral dilemmas, reading, watching a Ted Talk, teamwork

exercises, problem-solving, and experiences involving real-world scenarios.

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 69

2) Reflective observation. This is a reflection of the new experience as it compares to the

students’ existing knowledge or between the students’ new experience and their understanding of

that experience. During this phase, students may share their reactions with other teammates and

discuss their reactions to the concrete experience. By reflecting on their experience, the students

are actively involved in deriving meaning from the experience and/or activity. Students are

encouraged to think critically about the experience and verbalize their feelings and perceptions

about the experience.

3) Abstract conceptualization. After reflecting and dialoguing, this phase helps students

to form conclusions about what they learned and to apply what they learned to ‘real life.’ At this

stage, questions such as, “What did you learn from this experience?” are asked. The students are

then asked to share their conclusions with their teammates and to exchange thoughts and ideas.

This helps the students become more rigorous in their thinking, to compare and contrast different

conclusions, identify patterns, and discuss areas of disagreement.

4) Active experimentation. Once the student has either created a new idea or made a

conceptual modification to an existing idea, they can begin to apply that idea to their real lives.

The students are asked to test the new ideas and/or concepts in a real-world scenario or in a

future situation, resulting in new experiences.

Although the model appears to be straightforward and logical, its practical application is

not always explicit or clear. There are transitions between phases and the phases can be

approached in a non-linear fashion and interchanged. For example, the teacher can introduce the

new theory either before or after the experience/activity, thereby, interweaving the

conceptualization phase with the experimentation phase, allowing the students to develop their

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 70

own theory or to reinforce the importance of the theory after completing the activity (ISC

Medical, 2019).

One of the problems is that this model is frequently misused in practice (Mcleod, 2023).

For example, having students participate in a concrete experience such as an in-class

presentation, role play, or discuss a moral dilemma, without applying the phases of reflecting,

conceptualizing, or experimenting with real-world scenarios, lessens the power of the

experiential learning model and learning is significantly diminished or is nullified and made

ineffective. The model is meant to serve as a guide for the instructor and all four of the phases

must be included in the learning process in order for transformation, capability, or effective

learning to occur (Kolb, 1984; Mcleod, 2023).

Perhaps the three most significant attributes in the transference of learning and

acquisition of capability are: context, reflection, and dialogue.

Context

As stated earlier, the acquisition of knowledge, and the learning process are dynamic

(Bada & Olusegun, 2015), and constructed through active learning (Brau, 2018; Hung, 2013).

Understanding the context of the when, where, how, and why, is important in that it provides a

frame of reference for that knowledge, both in generalization as well as transference (Hung,

2013; Hajian, 2019). McPherson (2001) understood direct communication to be about the

product of communication; whereas, indirect communication is about the process of

communication. Thus, the distinction between the product (direct) and the process (indirect) is

often context-sensitive and is respective of one’s circumstances (McPherson, 2001; Mooney,

1997). Park et al. (2009) discussed the concept of verbal immediacy, which is defined as the

degree to which a message is explicitly communicated. Both the Chinese and Taiwanese rely

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 71

heavily on context to transmit messages, whereas, Western countries demonstrate the opposite

(Jeffery, 2022). For example, a Taiwanese teacher would think it was important for instructions

to be explicitly stated (Jeffery, 2022), whereas, a Western teacher may prefer that the student

figure things out on his own. Correct understanding of context seems to be significant for

providing the foundation and framework for reflection.

Reflection

In Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning cycle, reflection provides the catalyst for

comprehension. Kolb drew on the works of Lewin, Dewey, and Piaget, all of whom recognized

the acquisition of knowledge, followed by reflection, then experimentation, then more reflection,

and finally internalization and generalization (Kolb, 1984; Morris, 2020). Reflection in Western

education is an active process, however, precisely what the process of reflection is, has not been

studied.

According to Rodgers (2022), the concept of reflection, as part of the learning process,

was introduced by John Dewey who posited four criteria for meaningful reflection. First,

reflection needs to move the student to deeper meaning by connecting experiences and ideas,

progressing on a continuum from the individual through to society. Second, reflection needs to

be approached as a form of scientific inquiry: rigorous, systematic, and disciplined. Third,

reflection needs to contain a significant element of discourse, since it should happen in a

community of learners and be interactive. Finally, reflection should be unselfish and humble,

seeking to value both the individual and others (Rodgers, 2022).

Reflection for Eastern education follows much of the theory of Confucius, given that

Confucius’ analects and sayings continue to be studied today (Wegerif, 2014). Confucius

believed reflection should be concentrated in two areas: First, reflect on the knowledge for the

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 72

purpose of integrating the knowledge into wisdom, and second, reflection should be internal to

ensure integration of the knowledge into one’s own wisdom through synthesis (Wegerif, 2014).

According to Mezirow (1990), reflection is a synonym for higher-order mental processes

and is defined by Boud et al. (1985) as, “a generic term for those intellectual and affective

activities in which individuals engage to explore their experiences in order to lead to new

understandings and appreciation” (p. 3). According to Mezirow (1990), reflection would include

“making inferences, generalizations, analogies, discriminations, and evaluations, as well as

feeling, remembering, and solving problems” (p. 5). In addition, he also referred to “using beliefs

to make an interpretation, to analyze, perform, discuss, or judge” (p.5). For Dewey (1933),

reflection referred to “assessing the grounds [justification] of one’s beliefs,” (p. 9). In short,

reflective interpretation is the process of “correcting distortions in our reasoning and attitudes”

(Mezirow, 1990, p. 7). Reflection is involved when one looks back on content, or the process one

used to solve a problem, and makes an effort to re-assess the effectiveness of the strategies that

were used (Mezirow, 1990). Mezirow goes so far as to suggest that critical reflection triggers

transformative learning, allowing the student to structure meaning that leads to integrating new

experiences and perspectives (Mezirow, 1990). This involves questioning “the why’s, the

reasons for and consequences of what we do” (p.13), to understand one’s perspective and

transform it if necessary (Mezirow, 1990).

According to Yeo (1981), there is a didactic relationship beween questioning and

reflecting. In other words, questions induce reflection (Yeo, 1981). Reflection brings the ‘what’

of communication into question and entails a process by which possibilities are contemplated

and examined, allowing one to decide upon a belief or a specific viewpoint (Yeo, 1981). For

Kierkegaard, instead of trying to win someone to his point of view directly, he might try to get

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 73

his reader to reflect critically upon his own point of view. According to Yeo (1981), “Reflection

crystallizes the various possibilities, but the conclusion, the choice of one possibility over

another, has to come from elsewhere” (p. 24). The cognitive factor in arriving at a conclusion is

important, but Kierkegaard is more concerned with the role reflection plays in a person’s will or

decision and the meaning a person derives from that decision. Thus, one is back to the

consideration of how something is understood, as opposed to what is understood (Yeo, 1981).

This is the role of reflection.

While Dewey’s and the Confucian concepts of reflection seem to be complementary,

with both seeking to move the student to higher morality, and better civics, and both recognizing

synthesis as important, Dewey approached reflection from an egalitarian worldview, while the

Confucian worldview is distinctly classist (Shen, 2012). Another significant difference has to do

with the worldview in which Confucius continues to have a strong influence, one that views the

individual, within the hierarchy of society, through a collectivist lens, whereas, Western society

tends to view the place of an individual in society through an individualist lens (Shen, 2012).

This placement has an impact on openness to dialogue as a component of reflection.

Dialogue

Nisbett (2004) suggested that the collectivist worldview of the East was a result of the

majority of the people being confined to land, while the individualists came from seafaring

people. It is just as likely that the collectivist nature of the East is largely the result of the

influence of Buddhism, and even more so, the influence of Confucius (Hassan & Jamaludin,

2010; Wegerif, 2014).

It is situated in the milieu of collectivism versus individualism that a notable difference

between Eastern and Western approaches to reflection occurs. Dialogue as described by Dewey,

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 74

was not only an internal process, but also involved discussion, debate, and discourse with people

outside of oneself, and certainly outside of the dialogue between the teacher and the student

(Rodgers, 2022). Dewey understood that people needed to express their ideas outside of

themselves and seek feedback to gain true meaning. Indeed, without discourse, a person is

simply alone without validation, and at times, unable to come to a solution (Rodgers, 2022).

The Confucian approach to dialogue, by contrast, generally consisted of dialogue within

an individual. Because of the Confucian view that teachers were to be revered and respected

(Tan, 2015; Wegerif, 2014; Hassan & Jamaludin, 2010), dialogue may happen, but it is at the

invitation of the teacher. Furthermore, because of the role of the teacher as the keeper of the

moral values (Di, 2017; Wegerif, 2014), and someone who is highly respected, it seems, as

Wegerif (2014) suggested, that silent reflection is the greater virtue. Because of the worldview of

teacher/student hierarchy, and the perception that it is the responsibility of the student to figure

things out on their own, seeking discourse among their peers does not seem to happen that

frequently. As a result, a lack of discourse in Eastern education, as it relates to reflection, seems

to be one of the significant differences between Eastern and Western education. The next section

will explore the educational philosophy of Kierkegaard’s indirect communication theory and

how they come together to help in the construction of the theoretical frame.

Kierkegaard on Education

Kierkegaard viewed himself primarily as an educator, with the goal of bringing his reader

to understanding (Yeo, 1981). Kierkegaard saw the purpose of education as creating freedom by

removing restrictions on inquiry and thus allowing exploration of what is not yet known

(Johansson, 2019). Kierkegaard believed this freedom could be achieved through indirect

communication, offering his reader the freedom to act or think in their own way (Youssef, 2017).

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 75

Such an aim makes Kierkegaard’s writings a kind of educational pedagogy that, through indirect

communication, offers exercises for the student to “make a leap and choose his or her own life”

(Johansson, 2019, p. 113). The implication is that this “anxious leap” (p. 112) creates the

capability to live in the unknown.

Soderquist (2016) describes this pedagogy as dialogical. This form of communication

between teachers and students, is more about what is shown, rather than what is said in the texts

(Soderquist, 2016). With indirect communication, the use of literary devices is crucial in that

they “show us truth rather than tell us the truth” (Fraser, 2020, p. 160). Thus, the mission and

purpose of indirect communication, within education, is to capture the attention of the listener

and “utilize the written word, creative verbal device, or demonstration, to guide the recipient to

come to their own conclusion” (Rose & Halliday, 2019, p. 7). Kierkegaard (2009) pointed out

that with this type of indirect communication the communicator tries “to say something to a

passer-by in passing, without standing still and without delaying the other, without attempting to

persuade him to go the same way, but giving him instead an impulse to go precisely his own

way” (p. 247).

What Kierkegaard really had in mind is a general pedagogical strategy that mirrors

Socrates’ method of asking questions. Aumann (2008) suggested that Kierkegaard offered two

ways of determining whether something counts as indirect communication. The first is whether

the teacher relates to his students in a maieutic manner--in other words, the level of guidance the

teacher provides to the students. The second is whether the teacher makes use of literary devices

such as irony, humor, ambiguity, fictional narratives, or stories.

Mirroring constructivist education philosophy, Kierkegaard (1972) suggested that the

indirect communication process was not uniform and required the listener to be an active

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 76

participant in the discovery of meaningful knowledge. Kierkegaard wanted people to recognize

that they were distinct and special (Herrmann, 2008). That distinctiveness would result in each

person discovering meaningful knowledge unique to themselves. (Fraser, 2020; Aumann, 2019).

By recognizing these differences, Kierkegaard believed his readers would reflect critically upon

their own point of view. Creating reflection and discourse that would have been both internal and

external (Yeo, 1981). Constructivist education theory is very much about the shifting of

knowledge to meaning. Kierkegaard, using indirect communication, sought to do the same thing.

Interestingly, both recognized that education without context, reflection, and dialogue, including

discourse, was of little value. These three attributes are directly related to the instruction in the

classroom. These requirements mean that the role of the teacher is critical to the transference of

knowledge and capability.

Role of the Teacher

One goal of education is to help students think critically and be able to communicate

coherently. Ko (2013) suggested that the teacher plays a significant role in the critical classroom,

but to do that “teachers themselves must be critical thinkers” (p. 106). The Foundation for

Critical Thinking defines critical thinking as “the art of analyzing and evaluating thinking with a

view to improving it” (Criticalthinking.org, 2023). They go on to suggest that the most powerful

tactic for fostering critical thinking resides with the teacher, using the Socratic (or maieutic)

method, which focuses on giving students questions, not answers. It is the role of the teacher to

develop a student’s critical thinking skills by continually probing, inquiring, and asking

questions (Criticalthinking.org, 2023).

Another goal of education is to prepare students for their futures as contributing members

of society. While it is necessary to communicate knowledge to students, simply lecturing does

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not create the desire for the type of self-reflection and growth Kierkegaard hoped for. It is

important that educators utilize capability, giving the students the space for self-reflection and

dialogue to develop their own commitments and capacities. The caveat to doing this means that

educators themselves must be prepared and willing to change as a result of the dialogue

(Herrmann, 2008). This implies a mutual relationship. Walters (2008) explained this mutual

relationship as, “one involving an exchange i.e., the active sharing of views between learner and

facilitator, ‘as a way to knowledge’” (p. 113). According to Hall (2015), in an educational

setting, a trusting relationship, based on friendship and support, is key to fruitful reflection and

intelligent discourse. With a proper student-teacher relationship, the student becomes actualized

in the classroom (Hall, 2015), as the teacher makes it clear that he or she “possesses no interest

in judging, diagnosing, or diverting the learner from an experience that is personally relevant and

meaningful” (Walters, 2008, p. 116). Kierkegaard (2000) put it this way:

The helper must first humble himself under the person he wants to help and thereby

understand that to help is not to dominate but to serve, that to help is not to be the most

dominating but the most patient, that to help is a willingness for the time being to put up

with being in the wrong and not understanding what the other understands. (p. 460)

He went on to explain:

Consider a person who is impassioned about something, granted that he actually is in the

wrong. If you cannot begin with him in such a way that is seems as if it is he who should

teach you…and is gratified to find in you a willing and attentive listener--if you cannot

do that, then you cannot help him either. (p. 460)

Kierkegaard fully believed that it was the teacher’s role to find the student where he or she is and

begin there. He felt that “to be a teacher is truly to be the learner” (p.461) and that instruction

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begins by placing oneself in the shoes of the student by understanding what the student has

understood and how he has understood it.

Kierkegaard believed that it was the teacher’s job to seek reflection from the learner

(Yeo, 1981). This involves getting the student to question things previously taken for granted,

“to become attentive to recognize a misunderstanding which has previously been confused for

understanding” (Yeo, 1981, p. 130). It is necessary, therefore, for the teacher to reflect upon the

method (the how) of instruction that will best shape the learner’s presuppositions and guide them

to their own conclusions. In order to do this, Kierkegaard (2000) stated, “Even though a person

refuses to go along to the place which one is endeavoring to lead him, there is still one thing that

can be done for him: Compel him to become aware” (p. 464). Kierkegaard (1991) also suggested

that people are reached, not directly, by presenting them with facts and information, but

indirectly, through stories, allegories, metaphor, humor, irony, parables, and personal examples.

This type of teaching has the power to create a new perspective. Thus, “indirect

communication moves the hearer from abstract belief (that which is conveyed through direct

communication) to action, habit, and incarnational embodiment” (Fraser, 2020, p. 4). In this way,

indirect communication is not only concerned with the transference of knowledge, but with the

“conveyance of capability (the ability to do, to live the truth, rather than just knowing the truth”

(Fraser, p. xi).

This outcome requires a true Socratic teacher to practice and perform a type of vanishing

act. According to Dalton (2019), it is “the art of catalyzing the student’s own creative process

and then erasing yourself--vanishing before anyone notices” (p. 248). It also requires teachers

not to think of themselves as an authority. “A Socratic teacher stands on the same plane and

shares the same world as the student; there is no hierarchy of authority that makes the teacher

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 79

transcendent” (Dalton, p. 248). It is the student who must create their own truths. “The teacher is

only an occasion, whoever he may be…because I can discover my own untruth only by myself,

because only when I discover it is it discovered, not before, even though the whole world knew

it” (Kierkegaard, 1985, p. 14). Kierkegaard (1985) compares this type of learning to a coachman

who is not “capable of pulling the horse’s load, even though he may help the horse do it by

means of the whip” (p. 13). Thus, there must be a way to teach that allows the student to teach

himself. This is where indirect communication comes in. The purpose of indirect communication

is to help the student give birth to their own creative solutions to problems, become critical

thinkers, and capable citizens.

In summary, Kierkegaard saw education as communication that was designed to give

students knowledge, but then to give them the freedom to transfer that knowledge to capability.

The process Kierkegaard proposed was one of dialogue, or discourse resulting from reflection,

and being part of the reflection process. Kierkegaard did not isolate the educators from this

process, but rather suggested that they be immersed along with their students, being equally open

to change as a result of their own reflection coupled with the discourse among their students and

themselves (Kierkegaard, 2000). The understanding of knowledge and meaning through the

constructivist lens mirrors Kierkegaard’s theory of indirect learning. Indeed, as seen above,

education and communication are closely allied, and constructivist education and indirect

communication appear destined to be forever interconnected.

Summary

The purpose of this study was to explore the process which students in Taiwan go

through to transfer knowledge to meaning under the direction of a Western teacher. In

preparation for that research, the works of Kierkegaard were examined, particularly in the

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 80

context of his theory of indirect communication. Following that, the two major Western

educational philosophies of behaviorism and constructivism were explored in order to

understand the concept of knowledge and meaning. Behaviorism focused on the impartation of

knowledge while constructivism focused on gaining meaning from knowledge.

The focus shifted to Eastern education with its foundation in Confucianism, and while

both constructivist and Confucian educationists espouse similar philosophies in terms of seeking

deeper meaning, there are significant differences. For example, teachers are revered in Eastern

education, and are considered the holders of societal values. As such, they have considerable

power over students. By contrast, the relationship between teachers and students in Western

education tends to be much more collegial.

Another difference between Eastern and Western education systems is the focus and

purpose of the education. For example, in Eastern education, the focus is much more collective,

universal, nature related, and societal, while in Western education, the focus is much more

individual, concrete, and productivity oriented.

While both Eastern and Western education systems believe in seeking deeper meaning,

and they use similar terms in their approach, the difference is worth noting. For example, in

constructivist philosophy, the process essentially involves the acquisition of knowledge, which is

processed through reflection and dialogue or discourse to become meaningful. In Eastern

education, the process involves memorization before reflection. Reflection in Eastern education

tends to be self-reflection, and the dialogue tends to be self-dialogue, while in Western

education, the reflection involves dialogue that is both internal and external.

This literature review concluded with a comparison of Kierkegaard’s views on education

and indirect communication. In that comparison, it was noted that Kierkegaard’s theory of

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 81

indirect communication was an integral part of constructivist educational philosophy as

influenced by Dewey, though Kierkegaard tended to allow more degrees of freedom when it

came to discourse and reflection. Whether that difference would stand the test of research

remains to be seen.

This study sought to explore the process Taiwanese college students go through to move

from simply gaining knowledge, to developing meaningful knowledge. The theoretical

framework was Kierkegaard’s indirect communication methods coupled with the constructivist

philosophy of education. As such, the students spent time reflecting and dialoguing peer to peer

with the teacher acting as guide and mentor. In the next chapter, the methodology for this study

is discussed.

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 82

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

Overview

The purpose of this qualitative study was to investigate how teachers can use indirect

communication as a method for Taiwanese college students to transfer knowledge to meaning

and thus to capability in new contexts and in real-world situations. The goal of this chapter is to

describe the research approach and address the trustworthiness and ethical considerations of this

narrative inquiry research. study. This study was nested in the semiotic tradition which includes

the semiotics of indirect communication as a teaching method.

Research Approach

Using narrative inquiry allowed for understanding the journey that Taiwanese students

take in transferring knowledge of a second language into meaning, and thus into capability.

Furthermore, this method provided insight into the role of indirect communication methods in

facilitating that transference of knowledge. Finally, this approach provided insights into

understanding how a schema is constructed by ESL students to create meaningful understanding

that leads to capability.

The constructivist approach and the applicability of narrative inquiry are discussed more

fully in this chapter. Attention will be given to the research plan, methodology, participant

selection, research method, and procedures. This chapter will also address reliability and ethical

issues and the research questions.

Research Questions

This study sought to provide information on the process that enables transference of

knowledge to meaning by ESL students, and the role indirect communication plays in that

process. The research questions are:

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 83

RQ1: How can Western teachers use indirect communication as a method for Taiwanese

college students to transfer memorized facts into meaning, and thus develop capability, that can

be used in new contexts and in real-world situations?

RQ2: How does indirect communication affect a student’s ability to transfer facts into

capability so students can apply that knowledge in new contexts and real-world situations?

Methodology

This study focused on transference of knowledge into meaning, and thus capability in

Taiwanese ESL students. Of special interest to this study are first, to attempt to understand the

process students go through to transfer knowledge to meaning, and second, to attempt to

understand how indirect communication shapes and abets that transference process.

Communication is not simply the flow of information from the sender to the receiver (direct

communication), but also includes the thoughts and feelings of the sender (indirect

communication). Thus, the burden of understanding the message relies on the receiver to

correctly interpret the message. This is often accomplished by nonverbal behaviors such as tone

of voice, pauses and silence, as well as literary devices such as “deception, irony, humor,

ambiguity, fictional narratives, and imaginative constructions’” (Aumann, 2019, p. 9), and

“rhetorical tropes which include sarcasm, metaphor, and deception as art” (Parmelee, 2015, p.

24). It is not what is transmitted but how it is transmitted that is important to indirect

communication (Fraser, 2020). Kierkegaard believed that change comes about by indirect

communication, which is a critical aspect of this research.

Since this topic has received little research, and there is no hypothesis to test, it becomes

difficult to approach it from a positivist perspective. Furthermore, while a quantitative approach

makes it easy to deconstruct a subject and examine its various parts, a constructivist approach

allows for the exploration of how people construct meaning from knowledge (Cresswell &

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Cresswell, 2018; Merriam, 2002; Creswell & Poth, 2018). Because this study endeavored to

understand how Taiwanese ESL students process information and construct meaning, a

qualitative approach was the most appropriate. The tradition that best served this study was the

semiotic tradition, as it emphasizes utilizing the nonverbal (or indirect) use of signs and symbols

to create meaning.

Within the qualitative research approach, there are different methodologies. Of all of the

methodologies, the five most prominent are: (a) phenomenology, the construct of a phenomenon;

(b) ethnography, the study of society and culture; (c) case study, which primarily deals with a

single subject; (d) grounded theory, an approach for the construction of a theory from within the

data collected in the research project; and (e) narrative inquiry, a basic or interpretive form of

qualitative research that studies a phenomenon through the narratives pieced together within the

lives of the subjects of the research (Merriam, 2002; Clandinin & Connelly, 2000).

Since this research sought to understand transference of knowledge to meaning in

Taiwanese ESL students, and the role that indirect communication played, certain methods were

appropriate to the study. Ethnography did not fit since, while this study did have an ethnographic

element to it, that was not the primary focus. Grounded theory was not appropriate since this

study did not seek to create a theory, but rather to explore the process of transference. Case study

did not fit since this study as it was not focused on a single bounded subject, but rather on a

selective sample of subjects. Phenomenology was not appropriate because this study did not seek

to explain a phenomenon, but rather was intended to explore the journey of students from

knowledge to meaning to capability. Narrative inquiry was the most appropriate because it

provided a broad platform that encompassed processes and the lived experiences of the research

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subjects in seeking to understand the process of transference as it occurs in a classroom that

utilizes indirect communication as the primary means of instruction.

Narrative Inquiry

Narrative inquiry is a well-established method of inquiry (Creswell & Poth, 2018). This

method seeks to provide a story through the collection of interviews, artifacts, and observations

(Creswell & Poth). Narrative inquiry has a certain fluidity because it is situated in the three-

dimensional frame of the temporal: time; past, present, and future; social and personal; and place

or places (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000). Additionally, narrative is nested, meaning that the

reality of the research subjects and the researcher, are nested within each other and are

inseparable (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000). Though the individual narratives are nested, they are

individual (Creswell & Poth, 2018), meaning each person’s story is unique and needs to be

treated as such. While narrative inquiry is about individual stories, the collection of stories

creates a composite narrative. Adding to that composite narrative are student reflexivity journals,

fieldnotes, and observations.

At this point, it is appropriate to delve briefly into the philosophical underpinnings that

guide narrative inquiry. As used in the context of this study, the foundation of narrative first

comes from the idea that the narrative depends on the individual and does not exist

independently of the individual. This has been termed ontological relativism (Smith, 2016).

Secondly, narrative inquiry holds to the notion that knowledge is relative and fallible. This is

known as epistemological constructionism (Smith, 2016). Ontological relativism and

epistemological constructionism provided the foundations upon which this research was based.

Clandinin and Connelly (2000) suggested three guidelines that gave direction to this

study. First, researchers should always remember that they are in the midst of nested stories,

“theirs and ours” (Clandinin & Connelly, p. 63). This way the researcher can honestly recognize

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 86

his or her own story in the narrative process. Understanding this point also ensures that the

researcher will take care not to select ‘our’ story over ‘theirs;’ but rather embrace both. Another

point is that narrative research seems to find itself situated in the midst of different disciplines.

Here, the narrative researcher must be careful not to choose one discipline over another but

rather allow the narrative to speak from within the midst of the disciplines, because narrative

inquiry tends to be interdisciplinary (Merriam, 2002). This idea may be problematic for some,

because the borders are less defined as opposed to a more positivist perspective. The second

guideline relates to the purpose of the work; it has a reason to be done (Angen, 2000), and should

be internally valid (Schwandt, 1999) and meaningful (Lincoln, 1985). The third guideline applies

to the method of analysis, to be discussed in more detail under the section titled Data Analysis in

this study.

The Researcher

It is good at this point to understand the role of the researcher. Unlike quantitative studies

where the research instrument is of a static nature, in qualitative research, the researcher is the

research instrument (Merriam, 2002; Creswell & Poth, 2018; Clandinin & Connelly, 2000). The

researcher finds themselves situated in the middle of the research subjects, and their stories.

Since humans tend to be storied people (Clandinin & Connelly), they often find that the stories

of their research subjects awaken their own stories, and their stories can color and shape the

meaning of the data (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000).

As a research instrument, the researcher must be adept at collecting the data, verbal, non-

verbal, written, and artifacts. The researcher’s eyes, ears, and other senses gather data that the

researcher must record robustly and accurately (Cresswell & Cresswell, 2018). The researcher as

the research instrument poses ethical issues that will be addressed later in this chapter. For now,

the focus will shift to the processes and procedures to perform the study.

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 87

The Study Process

As already indicated, this study was a narrative inquiry that sought to understand the

process that ESL students in Taiwan go through to move from knowledge acquisition to

meaningful knowledge, and finally to capability. This study also investigated how employing

indirect communication as the primary teaching method affects that process. The duration of this

study was 16 weeks, or one semester.

Before beginning the human subjects’ portion of this study, two important steps were

taken. The first was to seek institutional research board human subjects research approval. The

second was to seek appropriate releases from the students and authorization for the students to

participate in this study. The study then commenced as outlined in the next few sections.

Participants

Sampling within this study was purposeful with the aim of increasing depth (as opposed

to breadth) of understanding (Campbell et al., 2020), with the purpose of selecting respondents

that “are most likely to yield appropriate and useful information” (Kelly, 2010, p. 317). The

reasons for adopting a purposive sample are based on the assumption that, given the aims and

objectives of the study, “specific kinds of people may hold different and important views about

the ideas and issues at question and therefore need to be included in the sample” (Campbell et

al., p. 652).

A total of 38 undergraduate students from National Chi Nan University participated in

the research. Data was collected from non-native English-speaking students in two university

English classes, over a period of one semester (16 weeks). Both classes were elective classes,

that is, they were chosen by the students on a voluntary basis. Both classes were senior-level

classes, and so the participants’ English language proficiency was expected to be at the

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 88

intermediate to high intermediate level. All of the students were asked to write a personal

reflexivity journal for each class activity, each week. There were 10 students in the public

speaking class and 28 students in the English school-wide elective (Business English) course.

The students in the public speaking course were all English majors. The participants in the

Business English class included majors from the entire university and were made up of students

from departments such as tourism, international business, banking, engineering, and education.

The study included a wide range of participants from various backgrounds and disciplines.

Data Collection

Using narrative inquiry, this qualitative study used three methods of data collection:

student semi-structured audio and video-taped interviews, students personal reflexivity journals,

and the personal reflexivity journal and field notes from the researcher. Thirty-eight students

turned in a weekly reflexive journal, detailing their thoughts over a 16-week semester. In order to

obtain an in-depth understanding of students’ learning experiences, students were asked to

volunteer to record a semi-structured interview, at the end of the semester. Eighteen students

volunteered for the interview: 5 from the public speaking class and 13 from the Business English

class. There were 6 male and 12 female college students. Since the author of this study was also

the teacher of the sample subjects, to prevent any bias from the teacher or the students, the

interviews were conducted by a proxy, who spoke both English and Chinese.

Data included student notes, along with the teacher’s notes for each class, and the

professor’s syllabus, along with a bibliography of the literature being used in this study. A copy

of the public speaking class syllabus is included in Appendix C and the syllabus for the English

school-wide elective course is included in Appendix D. Other data was in the form of written

papers, student discussions and participation, both student and teacher reflexivity worksheets,

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 89

and semi-structured interviews with the students. A copy of the interview questions is included

in Appendix E.

Reflexivity

The use of a reflexivity journal was a large part of this study. Incorporating reflexivity in

the research process is traditionally recognized as one of the most notable differences between

qualitative and quantitative methodologies. Reflexivity is commonly viewed as “the process of a

continual internal dialogue and critical self-evaluation of the researcher’s positionality within the

research” (Berger, 2015, p. 220). Reflexivity can be defined as the act of examining one’s own

assumptions and belief systems and thinking carefully about their own biases and how these

influence the research process and the outcome of the study (Jamieson et al., 2023; Creswell &

Baez, 2021). Creswell & Baez (2021) define reflexivity as the “engagement by researchers in

self-understanding about the background they bring to a research study and how it shapes their

interpretations, how the participants may be experiencing a study, and how its readers may react

to a study” (p. 233).

In qualitative research, it is assumed that who the researcher is makes a difference in the

findings of their study, thus objectivity is not present. It is often said, “The researcher is the

research instrument” (Dodgson, 2019, p. 220). Thus, “reflexivity makes the research process not

only a mere data collection process, but an enriching process where the understanding obtained

is holistic and in-depth” (Dodgson, 2019, p. 391). Dewey (1938) wrote that “to reflect is to look

back over what has been done so as to extract the net meanings which are the capital stock of

intelligent dealing with further experiences. It is the heart of intellectual organization and of the

disciplined mind” (pp. 86-87).

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Reflexivity is a validation process that creates a level of objectivity. Merriam (2002)

suggested that this is a tool used to identify and “clarify the researcher’s assumptions,

worldview, and theoretical orientation at the outset of the study” (p. 205). Clandinin and

Connelly (2000) use the word “wakefulness” (p. 184) to describe the reflective process of the

researcher.

Reflexivity has been recognized for its value in qualitative research for three reasons.

First, it recognizes the researcher’s own experiences, beliefs and biases, and influence they have

on the research process and findings. Through reflexive thinking, researchers can help to ensure

that their research is more reliable because they have been able to either neutralize, acknowledge,

or capitalize on their own research bias (Olmos-Vega et al., 2023). Second, reflexivity expands

the focus to include context and social and political issues in knowledge production necessary to

the research (Lizard & McAvoy, 2020). Third, reflexivity helps researchers to engage in a

dialogue with their participants. By remaining open to feedback and criticism, researchers can

ensure that their research is ethical. This includes being aware of the power difference between

the researcher and the participants and ensuring that the research is conducted in a way that

respects the participants’ autonomy and agency (Taquette et al., 2022).

There is a tendency for confusion when it comes to the difference between reflection and

reflexivity. According to Nagata (2004), self-reflection is after the fact, while self-reflexivity is

in the moment. She goes on to suggest that to be reflective is to sit and think about what took

place after it is completed, while reflexivity is an ongoing dialogue with oneself about what one

is experiencing as one is experiencing it (Nagata, 2004). In this study, the students were given a

reflexivity worksheet after every class with questions such as, ‘What did you learn from today’s

TedTalk? or, “What did learn from today’s discussion?

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The advantages of reflexivity are that it “binds the researcher, the participant and the

topic of the research together and makes the researcher an active part of the process rather than

being a mere spectator” (Ravi, 2019, p. 391). It helps the researcher become aware of the values,

opinions, and experiences they have brought to the research and how it can be useful. One of the

challenges is that the researcher’s viewpoint might hinder or color participants’ views, thereby

making the researcher more important than the participant. In addition, reflexivity takes a lot of

time and self-discipline which can make the research process challenging for the researcher

(Ravi, 2019).

The reflexivity journals kept by both the students and the researcher are an important part

of the data collection process. According to Ravi (2019), there is a high need for reflexive

thinking in the research process because it is important that different views are taken into

consideration and that the researcher also becomes an active part of the research. Reflexivity is a

two-way or bi-directional process whereby the researcher and the researched influence each

other (Ravi, 2019). Thus, the cornerstone of reflexivity is the question “what is the research

process and how am I influencing it?” (Lazard & McAvoy, 2020). The worldview and

background of the researcher affects the way in which he or she constructs the world, uses

language, poses questions, and chooses the lens for filtering the information gathered from

participants and making meaning of it, and thus may shape the findings and conclusions of the

study (Berger, 2015).

Data Analysis

Coming from a philosophical world view of ontological relativism and epistemological

constructionism, leads to the question of the theoretical approach to the data analysis. The two

theoretical models are constructivist or constructionist. The narrative constructivist approach

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suggests an approach that is more individualistic, and the narrative is a thing inside the mind that

is used to make meaning out of the stream of inputs coming into the mind. In the constructivist

model, narrative is essentially a window to the soul (Smith, 2016). On the other hand, the

narrative constructionist approach is much more semiotic, and views humans as meaning makers

who use narrative to make meaning of who they are, what their environment is about, and how

they fit into that environment. These narratives are passed on to coming generations (Smith,

2016).

In this study, both approaches were utilized. First, because this study crossed cultural

lines; secondly, as has been established, there are differing approaches to the education process

that may have a cultural foundation (constructivist approach), and finally, change to an

individual occurs individually (constructionist approach). It continues to be important to

remember that people exist in a continuum of time. As such, approaching this study, it is

imperative to remember that it is situated in time and location. Clandinin and Connelly (2000)

offer a three-dimensional model of inquiry that provided a useful approach to this study. The

empirical data used in this study and the collected data came from the teacher’s field notes and

student reflexivity journals, as well as transcripts of the interviews. To apply the model

developed by Clandinin and Connelly (2000), the empirical data was analyzed on a temporal

level (past, present, and future) that is situated in place (specific and possibly sequential specific

topological locations), and an existential level (personal and social issues). The purpose of the

temporal level is to highlight the nature of nested stories that are a part of narrative inquiry by

focusing on the personal and social aspects of the participants’ narratives related to specific times

and places or sequence of places.

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The data was analyzed using Braun and Clarke’s (2006) theory of thematic analysis.

Thematic analysis (TA) is “a method for identifying, analyzing, and interpreting patterns of

meaning (‘themes’) within qualitative data” (Clarke & Braun, 2017, p. 297). The aim of thematic

analysis is not simply to summarize the data; but to identify and interpret key features of the

data, guided by the research questions. The advantage of this form of thematic analysis is its

flexibility, allowing the research data to reveal what participants’ think, feel, and do (Clarke &

Braun, 2017). To better ensure the accuracy of the analysis, the data was analyzed through a

triangulation process.

Triangulation

Triangulation is the use of multiple data sources, theories, methods, or researchers within

the study of a single phenomenon (Noble & Heale, 2019; Carter et al., 2014). The method was

introduced in the 1950s as a means of avoiding potential biases arising from utilizing a single

methodology or research instrument (Noble & Heale, 2019). Triangulation aims at validating the

results of the study by helping to increase the credibility and validity of the research (Bans-

Akutey & Tiimub, 2021). It helps explain complex human behavior by using a variety of sources

in order to offer a more balanced explanation of the findings. It also contributes towards a

research strategy and tests validity by merging information from different sources (Carter et al.,

2014).

Triangulation has several advantages. (a) it can help to confirm research findings; (b) it

makes use of a variety of sources; (c) it can provide additional insights for better explanation of

research findings; (d) it ensures that data that are inconsistent, or conflicting, are easily noticed

and can be removed so they do not negatively impact the findings of the study; and (e) it

improves the validity and credibility of the study by reducing research bias (Bans-Akutey &

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Tiimub, 2021; Noble & Heale, 2019; Carter et al., 2014). One of the challenges that exists with

triangulation involves questions about how to analyze and weight the data (Carter et al., 2014).

For example, does an interview with one participant carry the same weight as 15 reflexivity

journals? The researcher must consider these issues and analyze the data separately, identify the

similarities and the differences, and conclude how the different methods affect the results (Carter

et al., 2014). This study utilized triangulation, which involved the use of multiple methods of

data collection about the same phenomenon (Carter et al.), which included interviews,

observations, and reflexive journals from both the researcher and the students, throughout the

semester. This helped ensure that the analysis of the data was trustworthy.

Trustworthiness

Qualitative research approaches trustworthiness with questions centered around “the

validity and reliability of the instrumentation, the appropriateness of the data analysis techniques,

the degree of relationship between conclusions drawn and the data upon which they presumably

rest, and so on” (Guba & Lincoln, 1981, p. 378). A qualitative study must be able to give enough

detail as to demonstrate to the reader that the conclusions make sense (Merriam, 2002).

The discussion of the criteria for validity, reliability, and generalization still continues in

qualitative research circles. The only consensus of what determines the reliability of a qualitative

study seems, as Merriam (2002) suggests, to be centered around the careful attention to the

study’s conceptualization and the way in which the data were collected, analyzed, and

interpreted, and the way in which the findings are presented.

To ensure trustworthiness or validation, issues of reliability, and both internal and

external validity, must be answered, though not by the same means as in quantitative research,

nor in the same philosophical orientation (Cresswell & Cresswell, 2018). Internal validity has to

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 95

do with the question of congruence to reality (Merriam, 2002), but the term reality has multiple

meanings. From a positivist perspective, reality must be observable by many people in exactly

the same way. This viewpoint may work well in a mathematical or positivist worldview,

however, it cannot easily describe the essence of something. Schwandt (1999) suggested:

To understand is literally to stand under, to grasp, to hear, get, catch, or comprehend the

meaning of something; to know is to signal that one has engaged in conscious

deliberation and can demonstrate, show, or clearly prove or support a claim. (p. 452)

Schwandt here exposes two dimensions of reality--the dimensions related to the observable,

concrete and static, and the dimensions related to meaning and understanding. It is within this

framework that qualitative research finds its home.

To establish validation, this study followed what literature suggests as accepted practices

of triangulation: member checking, peer examination, and examining the researcher’s bias

(Cresswell & Cresswell, 2018; Merriam, 2002). Triangulation is a procedure that essentially uses

the convergence of different sources to ensure truth (Cresswell & Cresswell, 2018). In this study,

it is the different sources that validate the assumption. As Clandinin and Connelly (2000)

suggested, narrative inquiry exists at “the boundaries of reductionist and formalistic modes of

inquiry” (p. 184). The triangulation process was to examine multiple sources to discover

converging themes. In this study, the sources were the participants’ voices, as seen through semi-

structured interviews, as well as both student and teacher reflexivity journals and field notes.

Viewing research through the lens of the research subjects is another form of validation

(Cresswell & Cresswell, 2018). Member checking is the process of returning to the participant

with the story as collected to confirm its accuracy (Merriam, 2002). Creswell & Cresswell (2018)

suggested that it is the narrative, rather than the raw story that is brought back to the members.

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 96

This process, though challenging because of the co-creative aspect of understanding, provides

more than just an accuracy gauge, it provides a significant hermeneutic element as well (Angen,

2000). Qualitative inquiry literature recognizes that reality as originally stated in an interview or

exchange will be altered as a result of that exchange (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000). By returning

to the member, issues that had not surfaced to consciousness may come forth that could add

additional depth of meaning.

Reliability in qualitative research is a function of whether the results of the research are

consistent with the data collected (Merriam, 2002; Stahl & King, 2020). Accepted procedures for

creating reliability include triangulation (there were multiple data sources in this study as well as

multiple methods of data collection) and through careful detailing of the methods and processes,

through which the data were collected, analyzed, and interpreted.

The issue of external validity, as explained by Merriam (2002), or transferability, as

explained by Guba & Lincoln (1981) is not easily accomplished by qualitative researchers. By its

very nature, findings in qualitative inquiry are not easily or acceptably generalizable in the

traditional sense because foundationally, there is a difference in the understanding of what is

being researched. Generalizability in quantitative research is generally determined by the validity

of the research structure utilized to obtain and analyze the data that identify the variables,

whereas generalizability in qualitative research is more or less determined by the ability of the

research to describe the variables (Gobo, 2005). Gobo illustrates this point as follows:

The squeak of the door (which gives us shivers when we watch a thriller or horror

[movie]) does not represent all squeaks, but we associate it with them. We do not think

about the differences between that squeak and the one in our own front door; we notice

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 97

the similarities only. These are two different ways of thinking, and most social sciences

aim at finding such patterns. (p. 453)

Merriam (2002) suggested that generalizability can only come from detailed knowledge of the

particular. This concept is the reason literature and art have an enduring value in that learners can

experience constructed reality vicariously through them.

For this study, creating generalizability had to rely on descriptiveness (Merriam, 2002) as

well as its orientation in its analysis of the relationships being studied (Gobo, 2005). Thus, this

study provided enough richness and thickness of detail to allow the reader to determine how

closely the concepts of this study met their own experience, and whether there is enough

evidence to make it applicable to other situations, though maybe not with the same results (Stahl

& King, 2020). These factors were significant in helping to determine the generalizability (or

transferability) of this study.

As with any qualitative human subjects’ research, since it is recognized that the

researcher is the instrument, understanding that this type of research may change who the

researcher is or who the participants are is important (Angen, 2000; Cresswell & Cresswell,

2018). Therefore, as Clandinin and Connelly (2000) suggested, to do narrative inquiry all

individuals involved must recognize their own history and how it affects their perspective.

Ethical Issues

There were three issues considered with regard to the ethical issues of this study: First,

was maintenance of the confidentiality of the participants; second, was respecting the willingness

of the participants to participate; and third, was procuring proper authorization from the

university to conduct human research.

Before undertaking this study, authorization was received from Liberty University’s

Institutional Review Board (IRB) for conducting human-subject research (see Appendix A),

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Because the instructor was also the researcher, it was necessary to maintain the

confidentiality of the participants. To do so, the interview process was designed as follows: The

participants were interviewed by an interviewer who was not connected with either the

university, or substantively, with the instructor. The interviews were transcribed and the

participant’s name changed before the interview transcript was given to the researcher.

No individual who was unwilling to participate was included in this study. All

participants were invited to participate by letter, outlining the scope of the study, their possible

involvement, the potential risks of such involvement, and how their participation would be used

in the study. It was made clear to the persons who were asked to participate that there were no

repercussions for not participating and that, in any event, their confidentiality was to be carefully

protected. The process was carefully explained to them so that they understood what was

expected and how it could impact them. Prior to the interview, each participant was given a

consent form (see Appendix B) to ensure the participant completely understood the study, their

part in the project, and the process for the interview.

Summary

This study sought to explore the role of indirect communication in facilitating or

affecting the process a Taiwanese university student, studying English as a second language,

goes through to transfer knowledge to meaning and thus develop capability. The methodology

for this study was qualitative based on a constructivist perspective. Narrative inquiry was chosen

as the research approach as this study sought emerging themes and relationships as opposed to

proving a hypothesis, as would be done in a quantitative study. Since the researcher was also the

teacher, the role the researcher, as the research instrument was discussed, as well as the ethical

issues surrounding the validity, reliability and trustworthiness of the data.

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A purposive sample was composed of 38 students, currently enrolled in a Taiwanese

university, who agreed to participate in this study. Data collection was in the form of semi-

structured interviews, student reflexivity journals and field notes. The data was analyzed using

Braun and Clarke’s (2012) theory of thematic analysis and was triangulated to check for bias and

to ensure consistency. Because reflexivity journals from both the students and the teacher were

used for shaping the findings and conclusions of this study, a discussion of reflexivity was also

included in this chapter. The next chapter will discuss the findings of the research study.

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 100

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS

Overview

The overall purpose of this study was to understand how indirect communication can

move a student from memorized knowledge to meaning, to developing capability. This

qualitative study explored the experiences of students at a Taiwan university to learn how

indirect communication helped them apply the knowledge they learned in class in real-world

situations. Through narrative inquiry and reflexivity journaling, this study not only explored the

‘how’ of indirect communication, but what factors and classroom activities contributed to the

students’ ability to move from knowledge to being capable of applying that knowledge in new

contexts. This study explored how indirect communication can be used as an educational tool.

The structure of Chapter 4 identifies the participants and the themes that were developed

from the thematic analysis of the data. The instruction and pedagogy, as well as the role of the

teacher, were analyzed in the light of indirect communication, showing three overarching themes

that moved students from memorized knowledge to capability: Student presentations, teamwork,

and discussion/debates. The classroom environment and feedback were also shown to be critical

for moving a student to capability. Direct quotations from participants are included in order to

‘give voice’ to the participants about their experiences.

Participants

Purposive samples, from 38 university students at National Chi Nan University in

Taiwan, participated in the research. Purposive sampling was done with the aim of increasing the

depth of understanding (Campbell et al., 2020) and for generating new knowledge through the

process of comparison and contrast (Denieffe, 2020).

Data were collected from two university English classes over a period of one semester

(16 weeks). Both classes were senior-level elective classes, thus the participants’ English

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 101

language proficiency was expected to be at the intermediate to high intermediate level. The

students were asked to write a personal reflexivity journal for each class activity, each week.

There were 10 students in the public speaking class and 28 students in the English school-wide

elective (Business English) course. Eighteen students volunteered for the interview: 5 from the

public speaking class and 13 from the Business English class. There were 6 male and 12 female

college students. The students in the public speaking course were all English majors. The

participants in the Business English class included majors from the entire university and were

made up of students from departments such as tourism, international business, banking,

engineering, applied mathematics, and education. The study included a wide range of student

participants from various backgrounds and disciplines.

Data Collection and Analysis

Using narrative inquiry, this qualitative study used three methods of data collection,

including semi-structured audio and video-taped interviews, student reflexivity journals, and the

personal reflexivity journal and field notes from the researcher.

An inductive, analytic thematic analysis of the semi-structured interviews, as well as of

the students’ reflexivity journals, was conducted to identify key themes and issues. This ensured

that the process of coding was data-driven rather than based on the researcher’s preconceptions

(Braun & Clarke, 2006). The advantage of this form of thematic analysis is its flexibility,

allowing the research data to reflect what participants think, feel, and do (Clarke & Braun, 2017).

The interviews were analyzed using Braun and Clarke’s six phase process (Braun & Clarke,

2006; Braun & Clarke, 2012; Clarke & Braun, 2017) as depicted in Table 1. Braun and Clarke’s

framework was chosen as it offers a clear, well-structured approach to data analysis (Nowell et

al., 2017). The approach is especially suited to gaining the richness and depth of a qualitative

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 102

study (Byrne, 2022). Braun and Clarke’s (2023) reflexive approach to thematic analysis aligns

with this study by acknowledging that the researcher is always shaping their research, is never a

“neutral conduit” (p. 4), and will always permeate the research with their individuality and

subjectivity. While the table shows these phases as linear, in practice they are set up to be

flexible, allowing for “layers of analysis that helped interpret the broader meaning of the data”

(Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 38). This was done by conducting a two-level thematic review

process, which reviewed potential themes against the coded data, as well as against the entire

dataset. Table 1 explains the process for Braun and Clarke’s thematic analysis.

Table 1

Process for Thematic Analysis

Phase

Description of Process

1. Familiarizing yourself with the data

Conducted and transcribed the interviews.

Read the data, and noted down initial ideas.

2. Generating initial codes

Coded interesting features of the data in a

systematic fashion using data software

DELVE across the entire data set, and

collating data relevant to each code.

3. Searching for themes

Collated codes into potential themes.

4. Reviewing themes

Checked if the themes worked in relation to

the coded extracts (Level 1) and the entire

data set (Level 2), generating a thematic

‘map’ of the analysis

5. Defining and naming themes

Ongoing analysis to refine the specifics of

each theme, and the overall story the analysis

tells, generating clear definitions and names

for each theme.

6. Producing the report

Selected vivid, compelling extract examples,

final analysis of selected extracts, relate

analysis to the research question and

literature, producing a report of the analysis.

Note: Based on Braun and Clarke’s Thematic Analysis (2006; 2012; 2017)

Table 2 presents phase two of the analysis process--generating initial codes. At this stage,

codes were developed based on the repetition and use of specific words and phrases that

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 103

appeared within the student journals and transcribed interviews using qualitative data software

from DELVE. In this example, taken from four student reflexivity journals, students were

responding to a question about which class activities were the most helpful in teaching them to

be more capable of working in a real-world situation and what skill they learned.

Table 2

Coding Process

Coded for Themes

Reflexive Journal – Data extract

1.Presentations

2.Speaking English

3. Read an English book

4. New vocabulary

5. Teamwork

STUDENT #1

(1) I think the presentations we have in some lessons taught

me the skill of (2) giving speeches in English very well.

Actually, I want to go to the U.S. to study in the future. So

the skill of giving English presentations is quite essential to

me, and I did learn it through the lessons. (3) I learned the

ability to read an English book and watch an English movie.

(4) I also learned lots of interesting vocabularies while I was

doing them. (5) I learned how team-working can help us to

deal with dilemmas and difficulties.

1.Presentation

2. Ted Talks

3. Teamwork

4. In-class discussions

5. Problem-solving

6. Share ideas

7. Made friends

STUDENT #2

(1) I learned the skill of giving English presentations. (2) I got

lots of knowledge through the Ted talk and the textbooks.

(3) I learned the importance of being a team player and how

teamwork can lead us to solve really difficult problems. (4) I

really enjoyed the discussion parts that we have during

every lesson. (5) I like to solve problems with my team

members and (6) exchange our thoughts with each other. I

also (7) made lots of friends through this project.

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1.In-class discussions

2. Moral dilemmas

3. Give Reasons

4. Solve problem by myself

5. Critical thinking

6. Problem-solving

7. Share ideas

8. Consensus

9. Teamwork

STUDENT #3

(1) In class-discussions about (2) moral dilemmas helped me

learn how to (6) solve problems, (7) share my ideas, and (9)

work in a team

STUDENT #4

Every time we were doing a project, we have to try to (3)

give our reasons and (4) solve the problem by ourselves first.

It trained my (5) critical thinking and (6) problem-solving

skills. And then we had to (7) discuss with our team

members and (8) reach the final conclusions together. I

learned the value of (9) how team-working can be so helpful

if we encounter some difficulties.

At the end of the coding exercise, the total number of codes within the 18 interviews and

38 reflexivity journals came to 150 across the entire data set. In phase three, the codes were

collated and sorted into potential themes, reducing the number to 45. This number would have

been cumbersome and un-maneuverable without a data analysis system. But since the coding

was inductive, the coded data was allowed to speak for itself. In phase four and five, the themes

were reviewed, defined, and given specific names. The coded categories were generated into a

thematic map, as seen in Figure 2.

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Figure 2

Theme Categories

The findings centered around two major aspects that moved students from knowledge to

meaning and are shown in the center of the wheel: The classroom environment and feedback.

Because the classroom environment and feedback are tied into each aspect of student learning, a

discussion of how it affects each ring of the wheel will be discussed at the end of this section.

Classroom

Environment

Feedback

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The inner circle represents the three major pedagogical themes of student learning:

Presentations, Teamwork, and Discussion/Debates. The student journals and interviews

identified these three themes as being at the core of their ability to transfer memorized

knowledge to capability. All of the classroom activities and projects centered around these three

aspects and were set up by the teacher as a framework for utilizing indirect communication as a

teaching method. A discussion of the instruction and pedagogy surrounding these three themes

will be discussed in the next section, as well as the role the teacher played in moving the students

from memorized knowledge to capability.

Radiating from the pedagogical themes are six core competencies, represented by the

skills listed in the middle circle. These were identified by the students as the point at which they

began to become aware of their competence and move from knowledge to capability. Analysis of

the student interviews and journals showed that the instruction and pedagogy indirectly gave the

students the ability to dialogue, speak better English, develop confidence, share their ideas, be

able to share their opinion, and use these skills in real-world scenarios.

The ability of the students to move toward competency in these six areas, led to 16

outcomes the students reported as making them capable of not only having knowledge but being

able to use that knowledge in the real world. This is represented by skills listed in the outer

circle. The data showed the students developed critical thinking skills; were capable of better

decision-making and problem-solving; were more creative; able to listen to others; able to

provide feedback to their peers; had the ability to collaborate, compromise, and research; and

most importantly, were able to overcome their fear. The outer circle represents 16 student

outcomes that were developed through indirect communication, the classroom environment, and

activities.

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The research suggested that a strong relationship between the indirect communication

method of instruction and pedagogy had the largest impact on the students’ ability to move from

simply having knowledge to developing competence to displaying the outcomes of capability.

Instruction and Pedagogy

The next section discusses how the instruction and pedagogy allowed indirect

communication to frame the research findings. As indicated in the syllabus, the goals of this

course were to develop teamwork, critical thinking skills, confidence, and higher-order English

communication skills. This was accomplished by way of the introduction of a real-life concept,

along with a Ted Talk, class discussion in small groups and shared ideas as a class, where the

teacher prompted more ideas, critical dialogues, and in-class debates. The students then had to do

a research project and presentation around the real-life scenario discussed in class.

Other weekly activities included moral dilemmas, conversations around real-life subjects,

and the reading of an English novel. Real-life topics were discussed around each chapter, with

the students required to write weekly assignments about what they would do, if placed in that

situation, with critical dialogues discussed in class about their answers. (See Appendices C and D

for the course syllabus showing the weekly assignments and discussion topics). Thus, Kolb’s

(1984) experiential learning cycle, which focuses on doing, reflecting, conceptualizing, and

experimenting, played a role in the creation of the instruction and pedagogy. Figure 3 illustrates

the type of curriculum design and pedagogy the students experienced in these classes.

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 108

Figure 3

Classroom curriculum design

Reading: A two-hour lesson started with a 15–20-minute discussion about what the

students read in their English novel. Topics such as forgiveness, revenge, indoctrination vs

education, bullying vs intimidation, etc. were debated in class. This was followed by a class

discussion centered around a real-life concept from the 21

Century Communications textbook.

The concepts in the textbook were not new to the students. For example, one of the featured

topics involved body language. The students had already acquired a basic knowledge of this

subject in high school, but were introduced to it again in a new way or in a new context allowing

the students to look at the topic in a new light. Instead of discussing body language as messages

people send to others, this unit looked at the message our own body language sends to ourselves.

This was followed by a matching Ted Talk, featuring an expert on the high power and low power

poses for success, which involved further class discussion. This required the students to combine

and integrate old knowledge with new concepts and to apply those concepts in new contexts.

Reading

•Discussion of real-world topics centered around reading an English novel

Presentations

•Student Presentations

•Introduction of real-world topics and Discussion (old knowledge presented in a new way)

•Watch Ted Talk (expert ideas - new concept)

•In-class Discussion (integration of old and new concepts)

Real World

Scenario

•Introduction of Moral Dilemma and/or Real-world Scenario

•Individual Decision

•Teamwork / Sharing Ideas - Team Consensus

•In-Class Debate - Group Consensus

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 109

Students were then asked to apply the principles of high power and low power body language

and give a presentation to the class.

Presentations: Each week the students were asked to research a topic of their own

choosing and give a presentation on that topic in front of the class the following week. For

example, if the main topic was on disabilities, the student had to research a person with

disabilities and tell how that person overcame his or her disability, how their strengths and

weaknesses contributed to that person’s success, and how the student could use that information

in a real-world scenario.

Real World: In the second hour, students were given a real-life problem to solve. For

example, one of the scenarios involved ten applicants vying for admission into a medical school

program that only had room for four. The question the students had to answer was: “Who would

you choose to accept into the program and why?” There was a scenario for each applicant, along

with their MCAT scores, GPA, the applicant’s past history, and a recommendation letter

explaining why the applicant should be admitted into the program. Each student was first asked

to choose which four they would pick and why. The students were then asked to compare their

answers with the members of their team. Each team was then asked to come to a consensus about

which four people they would choose. The students had to learn to share their ideas, listen to

others, work as a team, and provide reasons for their choices. Once the teams had finished their

discussion, each team had to bring their decisions to the entire class. Then the class, as a whole,

had to come to a consensus. Thus, each team had to debate, in class, with the other teams. It was

important that each person make an individual choice first and then write down his or her own

reasons for those choices. That way, each member came to the group with their own opinion and

would have something to contribute to the team.

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 110

Each week the scenario would change and could be a moral dilemma, or a problem with

deciding who got the visa, who got the loan, or who got the heart, etc. Some real-world scenarios

revolved around moral problems, some were financial and banking issues, and some were local

Taiwan issues or even world issues, dealing with war, poverty, or human rights.

Classroom Design: The classroom was set up to be student-led in a project-based

environment where the teacher acted only as the guide in self-discovery, not in the instruction of

new knowledge. Because there were no right answers in this type of environment, the students

were able to explore their own creativity and share ideas with others without fear of criticism.

The syllabus was built around in-class discussions of real-world topics, moral dilemmas, and

presentations. The purpose was to enhance their teamwork, critical thinking, problem-solving

skills, and to develop confidence--all while enhancing their English conversation ability. The

goal was to let the students take charge of their own learning, with the end result of creating

employable students, who are capable of functioning in the real-world when confronted with

situations that forced them to think in new contexts.

Role of the Teacher

In addition to the classroom instruction and pedagogy, the research showed that the

teacher played a significant role in moving a student from knowledge to capability. This section

will explore the role of the teacher in that process.

The teacher only acted as a guide, or facilitator, for the discussions. The classes were

student-led and student-centered. The discussions were set up in a safe environment, with no

criticism, no right or wrong answers, and where each student’s opinion was considered

important. The goal was for the students to decide for themselves what they believed. The only

requirement was that a reason had to be provided for every decision or comment the student

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 111

made. Thus, perfect English was not the objective, but higher-order thinking skills. By providing

multiple activities and projects, the students automatically began thinking in advanced English,

while at the same time, learning skills such as teamwork, collaboration, cooperation, listening,

public speaking, and confidence.

The following excerpt illustrates how the teacher supported student dialogues and in-

class debates. This excerpt was selected because it was typical of the instruction and is given

here because the focus of this study was on the exploration of indirect communication as a means

of moving students from simply having knowledge about something to becoming capable of

doing or acting on that knowledge.

Excerpt: Debate of a moral dilemma. (T = teacher; S = student)

T: (read the scenario): Mr. Allen’s son is seriously injured, but he has no car to take him

to the hospital. He approaches a stranger and asks to borrow his car, but the stranger

refuses saying that he has to go to an important appointment. Mr. Allen steals the car by

force to take his son to the hospital. Was it right for Mr. Allen to steal the car? What do

you think he should do?

S1: Steal the car because a life is more important than stealing.

S2: I don’t think it’s right to steal the car, because it isn’t yours and stealing is wrong.

S3: Yes, he should definitely steal the car. It’s his son!! I would do anything for my child.

T: So, the class consensus is that it’s OK to steal the car because it’s life and death, right?

(The entire class agrees with this solution.)

T: Let’s change the scenario. Instead of being the father, you are the owner of the car and

the man wants to borrow it. Now, what do you do?

S1: Give it to him because I don’t want to be responsible for someone’s death.

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S2: No! My parents would kill me. He can use someone else’s car.

S3: I would make him steal it, then it wouldn’t be my fault.

S4: Flag down another car and ask them for help.

T: So, the class consensus is NOT to give him your car, right? (The entire class agrees

that they would not give the man their car.)

T: Let’s change the scenario again. Now, you are a student on campus and stranger needs

help. Do YOU steal the car in order to help a stranger?

S1: No! I don’t know him, so I’m not responsible.

S2: No, it’s not right to steal the car.

S3: Yes, we should still help him, even though he’s a stranger.

S4: If it was another student, I’d help him, but if it’s a strange man, then ‘no’

S5: If it was a girl or a woman, then I would steal the car, because it’s a girl and she’s

helpless.

T: (The class consensus is not to steal the car for a stranger). So, at the beginning of the

discussion, you said that saving a life was the most important thing. Now, you’re saying,

“it depends.” You can’t have it both ways. Either a life is important or it’s not. Are there

any other options that you haven’t considered? (The class is now in a dilemma about how

to answer the question, is mumbling and discussing with their teammates. Everyone in

the class is now fully engaged).

T: Ok. I want you to go back to your teams and discuss what other options might be

available.

S1: If it was my car, I would drive him to the hospital myself and skip the meeting.

S2: We could call an ambulance.

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S3: I would let him use my phone to call someone or to call for help.

In this example, at the beginning of the discussion, the students had not considered any

options other than the scenario that was presented: to steal or not steal the car. Upon further

discussion, and sharing ideas, the group was able to come up with an acceptable solution that

everyone could agree with.

After class, the students had to answer the two questions in their reflexive journals: How

did this activity help you be able to use what you learned in the real world? How did this activity

help you solve problems, think of creative solutions, or help you work with others? Here is an

example of their answers.

Becky: Moral dilemma surely was a difficult topic, even when I discussed it in a group of

three. However, it may also be an inevitable problem in real life. Real-life moral dilemma

problems might differ in difficulty because of other conditions to consider. In real life, I’d

make the choice which I would not regret and accept the consequences.

Tim: The activity moved me from simply having knowledge about ethical decision-

making to making it meaningful for me by putting me in a realistic scenario where I had

to make a difficult ethical decision. During the activity, I was thinking about the different

options available to me and trying to weigh the pros and cons of each. This activity

helped me be able to use what I learned in the real-world by giving me a framework for

making ethical decisions. The activity would help me solve problems by giving me a

systematic approach to making ethical decisions.

Lydia: Thinking the problems in different person’s point of view is meaningful.

Thinking things in different perspectives, I can put myself in others’ shoes.

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Maggie: During this activity, I have various thoughts and emotions, such as confusion,

frustration, empathy, or enlightenment, as I explore moral dilemmas and consider

different perspectives and values. This activity helped me to develop critical thinking

skills and enhance my ability to make informed and ethical decisions in different

contexts. In the real-world, I often face complex problems and conflicts to make difficult

decisions and collaborate with others. The skills and insights gained from this activity can

be applied to other situations to help me to solve.

As shown in the above examples, the dialogue represents an indirect style of teaching that shows

a balance between the teacher as a guide and the movement of the student from knowledge to

meaning, and thus to capability.

It is now necessary to go back and address the results of the findings surrounding the

three pedagogical themes represented by the first ring of the thematic wheel. The combination of

indirect communication as a teaching method and the role and attitude of the teacher, revealed

three overarching pedagogical themes leading to the ability of the students to move from

memorized knowledge to becoming capable in new contexts: Student presentations, Teamwork

and sharing ideas, Discussion/debates on real-world topics.

Student Presentations

In-class presentations were recognized by the students as an activity that helped them

develop conceptualization, critical thinking, confidence, and command of the English language.

For example, one student stated,

The in-class practice of preparing the presentations and speaking in class, helps me think

about how to solve some questions that happen in the real world. It makes me have more

confidence to speak English and not be afraid.

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 115

Another student commented, “I think just doing the speeches every week makes someone more

capable.” During one class, the students had to research an infographic, present it to the class,

and explain the importance of the data. After completing the assignment, one student wrote,

Creating an infographic presentation can move us from simply knowing a topic to

making it meaningful by requiring us to condense and visualize information. In this era of

information explosion, we need this skill very much--the skill of organizing information

and presenting it simply. It encourages us to think critically about the information we

want to convey and find creative solutions to present it effectively.

This learning environment created capability by allowing the student to birth their own

ideas and to share those ideas in class. Because the students were able to choose their own topics,

they had to do a considerable amount of research for each presentation. One student commented

in his interview,

For this assignment, I spent many hours just researching my topic for the presentation. I

learned more from doing the research, than in doing the presentation itself. Although,

having to present my research to the class gave me confidence to express my ideas.

The majority of students had never been asked, or been given the opportunity, to give a

presentation in any of their other classes. Thus, this activity was a novelty for them. One student

said,

I used to be nervous because I’ve never had an opportunity to give a speech in front of

others. Although it was a forced situation and I must do it in class, I gained knowledge

about myself from the experience and learned to have confidence.

Giving weekly presentations was one of the most important activities in contributing to a

student’s move from knowledge to capability.

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Teamwork and Sharing Ideas

In addition to in-class presentations, there were weekly activities which allowed the

students to express and share their ideas as part of a team. The thematic analysis revealed that

teamwork and sharing ideas was the second most valuable activity in making the students more

capable. This is reflected in student comments such as: “I realize that a person walks fast; a

group of people walk far.” Another student stated:

Working in a team helped me approach problem solving in a creative and innovative

way. By discussing ideas with my teammates, we were able to think outside the box and

come up with unique solutions that others may not have considered.

One of the team-based activities was called the Marshmallow Challenge. The students had to

build a tower out of spaghetti, tape, and string, and put the marshmallow at the top. Each

member of the team had to contribute in order for the project to be a success. One student’s

response after class was,

The marshmallow challenge taught me that each individual can have their own thoughts

and ideas. Then, it’s the team’s job to compile the ideas into one concrete solution. It’s

about bringing ideas into a conversation, discussing it, and executing it.

Another student stated it this way,

Through this process, I was able to move beyond simply thinking about something to

making it meaningful in several ways. I learned how to work collaboratively with others

to generate new ideas and solutions, approach problems with a more open and creative

mindset, and develop innovative solutions to complex challenges.

Many students experienced a revelation, of sorts, because they had never been asked their

opinion in a classroom setting. One student commented, “I realized for the first time that I have

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 117

an opinion and that others thought it was valuable. I do have something to contribute and my

ideas are important.” Another student commented, “The group discussion brought out ideas I had

never thought of. In listening to others, I changed my mind about what I thought and was able to

adopt new ideas.” Thus, the use of teamwork developed the ability of the students to share ideas,

and fostered cooperation, collaboration, conceptualization, and confidence.

Discussion and Debate using Real-World Scenarios

The discussion and debate of real-world scenarios was the third most important aspect

students said helped them move from knowing about the material to living the material. For

example, in one activity, the students were part of a Taiwan university admissions committee and

were given the task of choosing who got into medical school. In another activity, the students

were part of a medical team at a hospital in Taipei, with the choice of choosing who got the heart

transplant. An additional activity required the students to be part of the Nantou school board with

the job of deciding which school programs to cut, based on a budget. These types of real-life

decisions created student comments such as: “Instead of simply reading or hearing about it, this

hands-on experience allows for a deeper understanding and connection to the subject, making it

more meaningful.” Another student stated it this way: “This activity moved me from simply

having knowledge about decision-making to making it meaningful by putting me in a realistic

scenario where I had to make a difficult ethical decision.”

Discussion and debate required students to weigh the pros and cons, to give reasons for

their choices, and to think about the criteria they used to make their decisions. First, the students

had to choose their own answers individually. They then had to share their answers with their

team and come to a consensus. Finally, each team shared their results with the class and had to

come to a group consensus. This led to insightful comments from the students, such as:

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 118

During this activity, I was thinking about the different options available to me and trying

to weigh the pros and cons of each. This activity helped me be able to use what I learned

in the real-world by giving me a framework for making decisions.

Other comments reveal the difficulty of this assignment:

During this activity, I have various thoughts and emotions, such as confusion, frustration,

empathy, or enlightenment, as I explore moral dilemmas and consider different

perspectives and values. In the real-world, I often have to face complex problems in

different contexts. This is the type of decisions I will have to make in the future, so I need

to know what criteria to use to make those decisions.

Another student stated:

This activity forced me to consider the impact that my actions and content could have on

others. This activity be able to use what I learned in the real-world by giving me a better

understanding of the responsibilities that come with being in a leadership position.

The use of real-world scenarios made the students utilize their critical thinking and

conceptualization skills. The ability to develop confidence resides in their ability to give valid

reasons for their decisions and to learn to approach solutions from both sides of a situation. One

student summed it up this way:

We must find solutions that align with both sides of a situation. For example, splitting

expenses, or deciding who gets the visa, or the heart, or the loan. There is no universally

correct answer, thus we must approach these discussions with empathy and an openness

to different perspectives and find mutually agreeable arrangements.

Utilizing in-class discussions and debates created an environment where the students

could share their opinions, requiring them to listen to others, and participate in real-world

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 119

solutions to real-world problems. The three pedagogical themes of student presentations,

teamwork, and discussions gave students a concrete method of moving from simply talking

about something to doing something with that knowledge.

There is one last unifying factor that was revealed in the analysis. In addition to indirect

communication as a teaching method is the theme of classroom environment. It is cast, along

with feedback and the role of the teacher, at the center of the wheel, as a critical aspect of

moving students to capability. Without a positive environment for growth, transference and

capability cannot flourish. Feedback was also seen as a major theme in the students’ interviews

and reflexivity journals.

Classroom Environment and Feedback

Indications of enhanced student capability involved the encouragement they received

from both their classmates and the teacher and the importance of feedback. According to one

student: “Feedback from the teacher and my classmates encouraged me and gave me good ideas

for improvement.” Other important aspects of indirect communication centered around the

ability of the student to “choose my own topics,” “think for myself,” and, “learn to persuade.”

The teacher also played a large role in moving the students to become more capable. For

example, student comments included things such as: “The teacher was easy to talk to,” or “She

teaches more than just conversation,” and “The teacher thinks every idea is important.” Other

comments were, “The teacher treats us like adults,” and “You’d better come to class ready to talk

because the teacher asks lots of questions.” One student stated, “This is the only class I’ve taken

where we can discuss politics, different world-views, and current events, without criticism or

judgment.”

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The environment of the classroom also played a significant role in developing student

capability with comments such as, “Every class was fun and exciting,” or, “This class isn’t

boring,” and, “This is one of the only classes I look forward to every week. There is always some

interesting projects and discussions.” Such comments demonstrate that a collaborative

environment with both teacher and student feedback are critical elements in moving a student to

capability.

Summary

In this chapter, three major pedagogical themes, six student-recognized competencies,

and sixteen outcomes were recognized as moving students from knowledge to capability. The

impact of the teacher, the classroom, and the various methods of indirect communication, have

been shown to play a large role in moving students from simply having knowledge about

something to being capable of using that information in real-world situations. The findings

indicated that the classroom activities provided an opportunity for the students to think for

themselves, learn how to make choices, and be confident in sharing their ideas. In addition, the

research showed that the students’ English ability was moved to a higher level, due to the use of

new vocabulary and the nature of the discussions. The analysis of the data reveals that the salient

factor of utilizing indirect communication methods had a direct impact on the students’ ability to

provoke thought, engage the imagination, utilize critical thinking and problem-solving, and stir

the emotions, rather than simply imparting objective information.

This study revealed that indirect communication methods are a sustainable method of

teaching capability and enhancing those soft skills that employers need and expect from

university graduates. The next chapter will provide a discussion and conclusion of the findings

along with recommendations for further research.

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CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION

Overview

The goal of this study was to explore indirect communication from two angles: First, as a

teaching method for Taiwanese college students and second, how indirect communication affects

a student’s ability to transfer memorized facts into meaning and thus develop capability that can

be used in new contexts and in real-world situations.

The first consideration is how a person develops capability. Teaching a baby how to walk

offers a simple example. First, the parent (or teacher) explains the process of how to walk to the

baby, providing not only the knowledge about what walking is, but going into great depth

explaining the physiological aspects of how a person walks. Next, the parent demonstrates how

to walk, making sure the baby pays strict attention, so the baby can duplicate his example,

because he will be tested on it later. Once the baby has been given all the knowledge he needs for

success, the parent sets the baby on the floor and…he falls down. He fails. Why? Because

knowledge alone does not create capability.

This may seem like a ridiculous scenario. It is! No one would do this in real life!

However, that is exactly what happens in the classroom. The educator provides all the facts and

information necessary for capability. The student memorizes the information and may even

receive an ‘A’ on the test, proving to the teacher and the university that the student has

internalized the knowledge and is capable of acting on that information. However, like the baby,

when the student is placed in a real-world scenario, he often fails. Why? The student does not

have the capacity to transfer the knowledge he has learned in school into a real-world situation.

The purpose of this research was to understand how indirect communication can not only

be used to teach the baby (the student) how to walk, but how indirect communication can be used

to help the baby (the student) be able to walk in new contexts--not just in the parents’ living

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 122

rooms, but be able to navigate hills, steps, and terrain that may be slippery, have rocks, or other

obstacles. It is the same for the student. The student must be able to solve problems, work with

others, be creative, and function in new contexts. This requires the ability to transfer knowledge.

This discussion centers around three pedagogical themes involving indirect communication that

emerged from the student journals and interviews: Teacher attributes, the classroom

environment, and indirect communication as a teaching method.

Teacher Attributes

There appears to be a profound difference in Western and Eastern teaching styles.

Western teachers tend to be more student-centered and interactive with their students, and have a

low-power distance. These attributes lend themselves to being more proactive in encouraging

students to ask questions and analyze information, fostering a more exploratory approach to

learning. The data collected from the students identified four distinct teacher attributes that have

an effect on student capability: developing partnerships; a sense of humor; encouragement,

which entails a focus on trying and not perfection; and helping the student find their own voice,

without criticism or judgment.

Partnership: Because of the low-power distance, the teacher was able to employ a more

collaborative approach between student and teacher, emphasizing a partnership in learning.

Dialogue, participation, and open discussion (and in some cases, open debate about differing

cultural ideas) were important aspects, providing an enjoyable challenge for both the students

and the teacher. Because of the teacher’s Western background, engaging in open discussions and

dialogue allowed the teacher to understand their students and to change the teacher’s perspective.

This was a new experience for the students. They had never been treated as equals. In

their reflexivity journals, the students commented that the teacher treated them as friends and

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 123

appeared to really enjoy talking to them and hearing what they had to say. The students felt that

every comment they made and every idea they shared was taken seriously and was valuable. For

example, Bethany wrote that it was the first time a teacher was interested in her viewpoints and

took her comments seriously even though not everyone in the class completely agreed on

everything. Coming from a background where the teacher plays a central role as the authority

figure whose job is to impart knowledge, the idea that the teacher was there to hear what they

had to say, created a phenomenal shift in the students’ paradigm, allowing them to incorporate

ideas from both Eastern and Western thought.

Sense of Humor: Another attribute that contributed to the students move from

knowledge to capability was the teacher’s sense of humor. In the Eastern classroom, education

tends to be considered a serious endeavor and requires a serious mind. In the teacher’s

classroom, it was imperative that students learned to laugh at their mistakes and not take

themselves too seriously. The idea that English was simply a tool to play with, and not

something to be mastered, was also new for the students.

Another new concept for the students was the idea that no one cares about their accent. In

America, for example, there are different accents depending on whether one is from the South,

New York, Boston, the Midwest, or California. This created a breakthrough in the students’

willingness to try and fail. For example, at the beginning of each class period, the teacher would

let the students give her a brief Chinese lesson. This usually ended in magnifying the teacher’s

inability to grasp what the students considered to be simple tones and phrases. Once the students

observed that the teacher was willing to look foolish and be self-deprecating, it opened the door

to greater student success and willingness for the students to try it for themselves. Adam put it

this way, “The teacher was willing to laugh at herself, which made us comfortable to also laugh

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 124

at ourselves.” After the teacher’s ‘Chinese lesson,’ the students were given a tongue twister to try

and master, creating another moment of humor, breaking the ice for the rest of the class period.

The ability to laugh at oneself, and with the teacher, was a useful indirect communication

method in moving students towards capability.

Encouragement: The teacher’s attitude towards the students as a guide, mentor, or

“midwife” in helping them birth their own ideas, played a significant role in moving students to

capability: first, in the assumption that the students are capable of great ideas and contributing to

society; second, that failure (not being perfect) is OK; and third, in helping students overcome

fear. Thus, the concept of ‘just try it’ became a classroom motto.

Fear was a major roadblock for student capability. Once the teacher removed the fear of

failure, of losing face, of making mistakes, of their ideas being rejected, and the fear of criticism,

capability could multiply. Krystal was a good example of a this. She wrote in her journal, “My

first day, I felt anxious, but the teacher’s response really helped me improve and overcome my

fears. Now, I am still shy, but I know I can do it.” Thus, one of the most important teacher

attributes is the ability to indirectly imbue the student with the courage to try, to experiment, to

be unique, and to instill confidence.

Helping Students Find their Own Voice: Individuality, uniqueness and bringing

different ideas to the table, are encouraged in Western education. This was a third concept that

was foreign to the students. Because of the tendency to be collectivist thinkers, the idea that the

student could be praised for proposing, inventing, and sharing their own thoughts and ideas was

a unique paradigm. The data from the students’ journals and interviews emphasized how

important this concept was for moving students from knowledge to capability. Because the

students were able to express their own voice, other students became interested in hearing their

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 125

opinions. The students commented that the lack of criticism or judgment for self-expression was

a major contributor to the teacher helping the student to birth their own ideas. Once students

adopted the attitude of “you can do it” and realized that they were proud of themselves, it was

much like the baby that knows he is going to be praised no matter how many times he falls

down. Capability starts with an enthusiastic teacher and is achieved using the indirect

communication methods of humor, praise, and the encouragement of the student to give birth to

their own ideas.

These are characteristics that can only be demonstrated indirectly. The teacher cannot

directly impart this type of knowledge to a student. It must be discovered for themselves. The

teacher must also demonstrate these attributes, in his or her personal life. Once the teacher can

communicate the concept that the student is capable, the student becomes capable.

Classroom Environment

In Eastern classrooms, emphasis is often placed on discipline, with all attention geared

towards the front of the classroom. The classes in Taiwan are very large, with theater-like seating

and microphones for each student--much like the U.S. Senate or House of Representatives. The

environment is set up for the ‘speaker of the House’ (the teacher) to be front and center. Half of

the teacher’s classes have 50 or more students in each class. There are no individual desks and

the tables are set up in long rows. The classroom environment is not set up for the students to ask

questions or participate in team activities such as dialogue or discussion. There is no room for

experimenting, group projects or games. In fact, the classroom design is almost a detriment to

trust and the creation of student openness. The classroom is constructed with the purpose of

positioning the teacher as the authority, with microphones at the podium to assist the students in

hearing the teacher’s lecture.

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Moving students from memorized facts to capability requires the creation of an

environment that encourages freedom of expression and experimentation, one that is non-

judgmental and not critical. This type of indirect communication environment fosters room for

growth, creating an environment where the students do not fear to try and fail. The classrooms in

Taiwan, due simply to the large classroom sizes, tend to instill a feeling of intimidation and

isolation. With 50 people in a class, it is difficult to create an environment that feels intimate,

where every student feels that they have a chance to be heard. Thus, the students place a high

priority on the creation of a safe space. George is a great example. He commented in his journal

that he felt the teacher contributed to making the classroom a safe space to experiment with

different types of speeches. He stated, “The teacher and my friends helped me have courage. I

think I can give a speech if a company asked me and not be afraid.”

In order to overcome the obstacle of such large classroom sizes, the students were

divided into teams, with no more than 5 students in a team. For group projects, dialogue was

encouraged within each team, with the team’s results brought to the entire class for discussion.

For example, in a group of 50, the classroom would be divided into 10 teams. Thus, the

permanent structures and tables no longer became a barrier, The teams were designed for each

member of the team to play a role and/or answer a question. For example, one of the group

projects involved designing a robot (in theory, on paper). Each team had to decide: (1) What kind

of robot is it? (2) What is its purpose? (3) Who does it help? (4) What does it look like? (5) What

special skills does it have? The team had to come up with a robot that would improve the quality

of life, and each person on the team had to answer one of the above questions, which they then

had to present to the entire class. After each team had presented, the class then discussed the pros

and cons of each teams’ ideas, offering feedback for improvement and suggestions for enhancing

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 127

their robots. The students said they still felt nervous having to present, in English, in front of 50

people, but because they were able to present as a team, the feeling of being alone dissipated.

Jenny is an example of a student who had never spoken in public. Jenny said that she felt a sense

of accomplishment and pride. Not only did she realize that she could do it, but she also felt that

she had contributed to the team and that her ideas and opinions were valuable.

One of the most important aspects of creating a classroom environment, that was

conducive to meaningful learning, was the ability for the students to listen to others’ ideas. Many

of the students felt they learned more from listening to each other than listening to the teacher.

Incorporated into the listening environment was receiving feedback, both positive

encouragement and suggestions for improvement. The classroom environment moved from one

of fear, to one that the students felt was fun.

The idea of an entertaining classroom environment was also a novelty for the students.

Their comments centered around the idea that, once one got to college, learning was no longer

fun. Their thoughts were that college is a serious endeavor because now one had to be intentional

about learning in order to get a good job. Evelyn, for example, shared in her journal and in her

interview that she had no idea that one could have fun and learn at the same time. A classroom

that was fun and entertaining became an important facet of a student’s growth and learning.

Consequently, student attendance and participation were higher. Koki commented to other

students that he could not skip class because he might miss something interesting, since he never

knew what kinds of projects, games, or situations he was going to encounter in class.

The classroom environment empowered the students to develop confidence, experience

freedom of expression, overcome fear, feel free to make mistakes, and receive positive feedback

and encouragement. The classroom environment was moved from an atmosphere of lecture and

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 128

direct instruction, and replaced by indirect communication. In this way, it became a safe space

for experimentation, acceptance, sharing, and speaking English, as well as the development of

soft skills.

Again, the message was clear: student capability was heavily influenced by indirectly

controlling the design and set up of the learning environment. The final factor in helping the

student transfer memorized knowledge to capability was in using indirect communication as a

pedagogical teaching method.

Indirect Communication Teaching Method

Indirect communication involves the maieutic method of instruction, where the teacher’s

job is to help the student give birth to their own ideas. This involves letting the student be in

charge of their own education. This was a novel approach of instruction for the Taiwanese

students and could not be accomplished by simply changing the curriculum to a more hands-on

approach. A pedagogical model involving indirect communication must incorporate the attitude

of the teacher and the classroom environment. It does not matter what textbook materials the

teacher chooses to use; an indirect approach to teaching capability can be used in all subjects, not

only English.

The classroom curriculum focused on ‘doing’ and applying every concept to a real-life

scenario. The students were able to experience real-world situations in the classroom as they

read, presented, analyzed, and reflected on issues such as moral dilemmas and real-life

situations. This experience gave the students the capability to move from simply having

knowledge about something to being able to transfer and use that knowledge.

Every aspect of the class curriculum involved the students engaged in doing an activity

that involved discussing, presenting, analyzing, reflecting, collaborating, conversing, and

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 129

evaluating. In each activity, space was made for the students to take control and responsibility

for their own learning, which created an environment for transference of knowledge to capability

because of their own discovery about themselves. Transference is the process of moving

knowledge to meaning and takes place when one’s existing knowledge affects the performance

of new tasks. For Kierkegaard, the utilization of indirect communication was critical for students

in the development of transference. This teaching method allows a teacher to awaken the student

indirectly. This aspect results in a 2-prong approach to capability which utilizes Kolb’s learning

cycle and Kierkegaard’s theory of indirect communication, as seen in Figure 4 below.

Figure 4

2-Prong Approach to Capability

Capability

Formation of Soft Skills

Kolb’s experiential learning cycle provided the framework for a learning process

strategy, while Kierkegaard’s indirect communication provided the method of application.

Kolb’s learning cycle used texts that provided cases based on real-life situations. Kierkegaard’s

Kolb's Learning

Cycle

Kierkegaard's

Theory of Indirect

Communication

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 130

theory of indirect communication offered challenging issues and real-world scenarios to the

students without providing them with the solution. As a result, the students were forced to use

reflective thinking that led to the formulation of theses and hypotheses. As the concepts began to

gel, the students began to formulate an opinion and were required to present that opinion to their

colleagues. Stella felt that doing an in-class presentation in front of her peers was a mile-stone

moment because it was at this point that she recognized that she had ideas, that other people were

willing to listen to those ideas, and that she could actually think. According to the students’

journals and interviews, it appeared that the students had never been asked their opinion and

were not given much of an opportunity to formulate their own ideas. This two-pronged approach

created capability by allowing the students to formulate and share their own ideas.

The use of real-world scenarios, moral dilemmas, and problem-solving activities were a

means of applying Kolb’s learning cycle, but the teacher’s method of delivery, such as avoiding

direct communication and lecture were the means of applying Kierkegaard’s theory of indirect

communication and ambiguity. This resulted in classroom conditions where students were

encouraged to dialogue. It provided a comfortable environment where the students would not

lose face, while it also produced a sense of intrigue that motivated students to engage with the

process.

The same idea can be seen in reverse. The students thought they were coming to class to

learn English, but they were indirectly shaping their worldviews, learning to solve problems,

making decisions, and overcoming their fear. Thus, this study revealed that using indirect

communication as a teaching method creates a double aspect of capability--the formation of soft

skills and an increased capacity to use English in a variety of contexts and real-world

applications. In addition, students developed higher-order thinking skills and learned how to

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 131

work in a team. This all happened without the students’ being consciously aware that they had

acquired these skills, or the realization that they had fundamentally changed either their behavior

or their way of thinking.

In essence, the students became interested to the point that they were not even thinking

about learning English, they just did learn English. In addition, the students also learned soft

skills, such as critical thinking, conceptualization, and transferability; most importantly, they

gained capability, and, as Kierkegaard suggested, the teacher simply disappeared in the process.

This is the objective and aim of indirect communication.

Answering the Research Questions

There are two distinct findings that answer RQ 1: How can Western teachers use indirect

communication as a method for Taiwanese college students to transfer memorized facts into

meaning, and thus develop capability, that can be used in new contexts and in real-world

situations?

The first key finding showed that replacing an atmosphere of lecture and direct

communication with indirect communication curriculum and teaching methods caused students

to move from simply having knowledge to being able to use that knowledge in the real-world

and in new contexts. The second key finding was that teacher attributes, such as developing

partnerships with students, a sense of humor, encouraging the student to birth their own ideas,

and encouraging the student to be unique and find their own voice, play a key role in moving

students from knowledge to capability. These findings demonstrate that a Western teacher, using

indirect communication methods in a Taiwanese classroom, can be successful in moving

students from knowledge to capability.

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 132

This study revealed three important findings that answer RQ 2: How does indirect

communication affect a student’s ability to transfer facts into capability so students can apply

that knowledge in new contexts and real-world situations?

First, creating a classroom environment that is conducive to discussion group projects

and activities, team-building, collaboration, sharing ideas, and which is also fun, produced an

atmosphere that enhanced student capability. Second, combining Kolb’s learning cycle and

Kierkegaard’s theory of indirect communication methods produced two types of capability: the

formation of soft skills as well as an increased capacity to use English in a variety of contexts

and real-world applications. Students thought they were coming to learn English, but they

indirectly developed soft skills in areas such as critical thinking, conceptualization, problem-

solving, and teamwork. This allowed them to transfer memorized knowledge into capability.

Third, using indirect communication methods fundamentally changed the students’ worldviews,

created higher-order thinking skills, and increased student capability without the students’

awareness that they had acquired these skills.

These findings demonstrate that indirect communication methods are effective for the

transference of memorized knowledge to capability in Taiwanese college students.

Implications

The implications for this study demonstrated that the combination of Kolb and

Kierkegaard provided a useful means of moving students toward capability. Kolb provided a

description of the framework for experiential learning and knowledge acquisition, while

Kierkegaard provided an array of tools not available in direct communication that could be used,

either individually or collectively, to help students gain capability. These methods include

everything from the didactic, in the form of YouTube videos, such as Ted Talks, to the dialectic

in the form of dialogue, debates, teamwork activities, moral dilemmas, humor, projects, and in-

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 133

class presentations. Kolb provided the practical aspect of learning, while Kierkegaard provided

the methodology for the practical application. Kolb prescribed “doing” for learning to take place,

while Kierkegaard prescribed indirect communication for “uncovering” the meaning that leads to

capability.

Merging the experiential with indirect communication produces students who are able to

move from simply having knowledge to being capable of using that knowledge in the real world.

Indirect communication methods make this transference possible. The implications are that

indirect communication methods provide a wider variety of tools than direct communication

methods for moving students toward capability by creating an environment for them to birth their

own ideas, not simply parroting memorized facts.

Limitations

This study has the following limitations: First, it is limited in scope, as it was created in

the context of a single university in Taiwan with students who had limited command of the

English language. Second, the transferability of the findings to other Asian countries needs to be

considered. Even though there are similarities in cultures across Asia, differences do exist that

could impact the outcome. Third, the study was conducted over one 16-week semester, which is

a short period of time for moving students from memorized knowledge to full capability.

Recommendations for Future Research

The significance of indirect learning as a communication model could be of value as

Taiwanese educators move towards solving the problem of rote-memorization and knowledge-

only-based learning. This dissertation could be very helpful to any teacher attempting to teach

Taiwanese students, or any students who have been schooled in a teacher-centric culture. There

are further areas of study worthy of investigation as a result of this research. The study could be

expanded to include indirect communication methods in other Asian countries or areas where

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 134

students are learning English as a second language. While there are similarities in cultures across

Asia, differences also exist that may affect the outcome. Also, a quantitative study could be

conducted measuring the growth and/or strength of transferability between a classroom

conducted in indirect communication and a traditional classroom. Finally, indirect

communication methods of instruction could be conducted with a Taiwanese teacher to

determine whether the same outcomes would be achieved.

Summary

One of the main purposes of higher education is to prepare students to enter the

workforce; however, studies have shown there is a disconnect between the soft skills employers

are looking for and the method of instruction in higher education institutions. This is especially

prevalent in Asian countries where the education system is based on rote memorization.

Employers are stating that graduating university students are not capable of using that

information in new contexts or in real-world situations. The purpose of this narrative inquiry was

to explore how indirect communication can be used as a teaching method for developing

transference and capability in Taiwanese college students.

This study demonstrated that indirect communication was an effective tool in moving

students from simply having knowledge about something to being capable of using that

knowledge in new contexts and in real-world situations. The findings suggest a pedagogical

approach based on Kolb’s experiential learning theory and Søren Kirkegaard’s theory of indirect

communication that has been shown to be effective in creating students who are capable of doing

new things and not simply repeating the thoughts of others.

The thematic analysis revealed three pedagogical themes that contribute to a student’s

ability to transfer knowledge to capability: Teacher attributes, the classroom environment, and

indirect communication as a teaching method. Radiating from those three themes were six core

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 135

competencies, giving the students the ability to dialogue, speak better English, develop

confidence, share their ideas and opinions, and use these skills in real-world scenarios. This led

to sixteen outcomes the students reported as making them capable of not only having knowledge

but being able to use that knowledge in the real world. The data showed that the students

developed critical thinking skills, were better at decision-making and problem-solving, were

more creative, were able to collaborate and listen to others, and most importantly, were able to

overcome their fear. The indirect communication method was practiced in a student-led

classroom through reading, in-class presentations, and activities involving real-world scenarios.

The research indicated that not only is indirect communication an important method for

knowledge transference but that the role of the teacher is also a significant factor in developing

capability. Teachers who act simply as a guide or facilitator, ask questions, probe the students for

their ideas, allow dialogue and provide an interactive classroom capture the attention of the

students and create a learning environment that fosters the transfer of knowledge to capability.

When the teacher allows the student to develop their own conclusion, capability becomes a

reality.

One of the most relevant findings of this study was that using indirect communication as

a teaching method fostered development in two areas of capability--the formation of soft skills

and an increased capacity of the student to use English in a variety of contexts and applications.

This happened without the students’ awareness that they had fundamentally changed their way of

thinking. The findings indicated that the students were aware that they had become capable.

They could speak better English, make decisions, solve complex problems, work as a team,

overcome their fear, and create and share their own ideas. They could not, however, articulate

exactly when, during the semester, this had taken place. What the students could articulate was

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 136

how they became capable: through ‘doing’ and applying learned knowledge to new situations

and contexts. The students had become capable without thinking about it. This study showed that

indirect communication as a teaching method creates an environment which allows the student to

give birth to their own ideas. As Kierkegaard would have suggested, it is how the message is

presented and not what is being presented that creates capability. That is the purpose and goal of

higher education.

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 137

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APPENDIX A: IRB Approval

April 6, 2023

Melynie Tooley

Sheri Parmelee

Re: IRB Approval - IRB-FY22-23-734 Indirect Communication as a Teaching Method for Developing

Transference and Capability in Taiwanese College Students

Dear Melynie Tooley, Sheri Parmelee,

We are pleased to inform you that your study has been approved by the Liberty University Institutional

Review Board (IRB). This approval is extended to you for one year from the following date: April 6, 2023. If

you need to make changes to the methodology as it pertains to human subjects, you must submit a

modification to the IRB. Modifications can be completed through your Cayuse IRB account.

Your study falls under the expedited review category (45 CFR 46.110), which is applicable to specific,

minimal risk studies and minor changes to approved studies for the following reason(s):

7. Research on individual or group characteristics or behavior (including, but not limited to, research on

perception, cognition, motivation, identity, language, communication, cultural beliefs or practices, and

social behavior) or research employing survey, interview, oral history, focus group, program evaluation,

human factors evaluation, or quality assurance methodologies.

Your stamped consent form(s) and final versions of your study documents can be found under the

Attachments tab within the Submission Details section of your study on Cayuse IRB. Your stamped

consent form(s) should be copied and used to gain the consent of your research participants. If you plan

to provide your consent information electronically, the contents of the attached consent document(s)

should be made available without alteration.

Thank you for your cooperation with the IRB, and we wish you well with your research project.

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 161

Sincerely,

G. Michele Baker, PhD, CIP

Administrative Chair

Research Ethics Office

APPENDIX B: Informed Consent Form

Title of the Project: Indirect Communication as a Teaching Method for Developing

Transference and Capability in Taiwanese College Students

Principal Investigator: Melynie Tooley, Doctoral Candidate, School of Strategic

Communications, at Liberty University

Invitation to be Part of a Research Study

You are invited to participate in a research study. To participate, you must be a student at

National Chi Nan University and be enrolled in an English class taught by Teacher Tooley, in the

Department of Foreign Languages and Literature. Taking part in this research project is

voluntary. Please take time to read this entire form and ask questions before deciding whether to

take part in this research.

What is the study about and why is it being done?

The purpose of the study is to explore how teachers can use indirect communication as a method

for helping college students transfer memorized facts into meaning, and thus develop capability.

What will happen if you take part in this study?

If you agree to be in this study, you will be asked to participate in an in-person, audio-recorded

interview that will take no more than an hour. You may be asked to review your transcripts for

accuracy or to make sure your comments were recorded correctly. This should not take more

than 30 minutes.

How could you or others benefit from this study?

Participants should not expect to receive a direct benefit from taking part in this study. The

benefits to society include helping other higher education professors/teachers help students

transfer memorized knowledge and facts into meaning. It will also benefit the research on using

indirect communication as a method for developing capability/

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 162

What risks might you experience from being in this study?

The expected risks from participating in this study are minimal, which means they are equal to

the risks you would encounter in everyday life.

How will personal information be protected?

The records of this study will be kept private. Research records will be stored securely, and only

the researcher will have access to the records.

• Participant responses will be kept confidential by replacing names with pseudonyms.

• Interviews will be conducted in a location where others will not easily overhear the

conversation.

• Data collected from you may be used in future research studies and/or shared with other

researchers. If data collected from you is reused or shared, any information that could

identify you will be removed beforehand.

• Data will be stored on a password—locked computer in a locked cabinet. After three

years, all electronic records will be deleted.

• Recordings will be stored on a password locked computer for three years and then

deleted. Only the researcher will have access to these recordings.

How will you be compensated for being part of the study?

Participants will not be compensated for participating in this study.

Is the researcher in a position of authority over participants, or does the researcher have a

financial conflict of interest?

The researcher serves as a teacher at National Chi Nan University. To limit potential or

perceived conflicts, the interview will be conducted by a proxy, who speaks both English and

Chinese. This disclosure is made so that you can decide if this relationship will affect your

willingness to participate in this study. No action will be taken against an individual based on his

or her decision to participate or not participate in this study.

Is study participation voluntary?

Participation in this study is voluntary. Your decision whether to participate will not affect your

current or future relations with Liberty University or National Chi Nan University. If you decide

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 163

to participate, you are free to not answer any question or withdraw at any time without affecting

those relationships.

What should you do if you decide to withdraw from the study?

If you choose to withdraw from the study, please contact the researcher at the email

address/phone number included in the next paragraph. Should you choose to withdraw, data

collected from will be destroyed immediately and will not be included in this study.

Whom do you contact if you have questions about your rights as a research participant?

If you have any questions or concerns regarding this study and would like to talk to someone

other than the researcher, you are encouraged to contact the IRB. Our physical address is

Institutional Review Board, 1971 University Blvd., Green Hall Ste. 2845, Lynchburg, VA,

24515; our phone number is 434-592-5530, and our email address is [email protected].

Disclaimer: The Institutional Review Board (IRB) is tasked with ensuring that human subjects research

will be conducted in an ethical manner as defined and required by federal regulations. The topics covered

and viewpoints expressed or alluded to by student and faculty researchers are those of the researchers

and do not necessarily reflect the official policies or positions of Liberty University.

Your Consent

By signing this document, you are agreeing to be in this study. Make sure you understand what

the study is about before you sign. You will be given a copy of this document for your records.

The researcher will keep a copy with the study records. If you have any questions about the study

after you sign this document, you can contact the study team using the information provided

above.

I have read and understood the above information. I have asked questions and have received

answers. I consent to participate in the study.

The researcher has my permission to audio-record and/or video-record me as part of my

participation in this study.

____________________________________

Printed Subject Name

____________________________________

Signature & Date

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 164

APPENDIX C: Course Syllabus – Public Speaking

COURSE SYLLABUS

English Public Speaking & Presentation Skills

Spring 2023

Course Objectives

In this course, the student will be learning the tools to be an effective communicator. We will

utilize the Toastmaster format for speech giving and will practice giving formal presentations, as

well as impromptu speaking. Each student will be required to give 10 speeches each semester.

Every speech will be recorded and each student will keep a reflexive journal as a self-evaluation

process. In addition, the student will also be evaluating other students’ speeches and learning

techniques for providing constructive feedback.

Course Textbook:

1. Effective Presentation Skills – 3

Edition; 2020; by M. Moslehpour; TungHua Books

ISBN: 978-957-483-8950

2. Speak Like Churchill Stand Like Lincoln; by James C. Humes

ISBN: 978-0761-563518

Class Agenda:

Conduct a Full Toastmaster Session

a. Speeches using Toastmaster format

b. Table Topics (Impromptu speaking practice)

c. Speech evaluations

d. Tips and techniques: Effective Presentation Skills

e. Evaluation of Ted Talks and other famous speeches

f. Discussion of textbook: Speak Like Churchill Stand Like Lincoln

Course Grading

50% Speeches (teacher evaluation of table topics, speeches)

10% Peer Evaluations

10% Reflexive Journal

15% Attendance

15% Class Participation

Late Assignment and Attendance Policy

Because this is a public speaking class, and requires weekly class participation, attendance is

required. Absences will be handled on a per-student basis. Missing 3 speeches will result in a

failing grade.

Grading Scale

A = 94-100 A- = 90-93 B+ = 86-89 B = 83-85 B- = 80-82

C+ = 76-79 C = 73-75 C- = 70-72 D = 60-69 F = 0-59

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 165

ENGLISH PUBLIC SPEAKING & PRESENTATION SKILLS

Course Syllabus: Speech Topics

First Semester: Speech Topics

Intro to Speech Class

Speech #1 – Ice Breaker

Speech #2 – Organizing Your Speech

Speech #3 – Get to the Point

Speech #4 – How to Say It

Speech #5 – Your Body Speaks

Speech #6 – Vocal Variety

Speech #7 – Research Your Topic

Speech #8 – Get Comfortable with Visual Aids

Speech #9 – Persuade with Power

Speech #10 – Inspire Your Audience

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 166

APPENDIX D: Course Syllabus – English School-wide Elective Course

COURSE SYLLABUS

English School-wide Elective Course

Spring Semester 2023

Course Objectives:

The aim of this course is to help non-English major students to improve their listening,

speaking, and presentation skills. Students will be exposed to real-life business situations, with

in-class discussions about real-world topics, through activities such as short conversations, video

clips, and other reading materials. The emphasis will be on moving the student from a beginning

conversational level to an advanced elementary level. It aims to teach the fundamentals of the

kinds of conversations the student will face on the street and in the real world.

The goal is to assist the student into becoming a competent communicator. Students will

learn to speak effectively by engaging in the process of every day conversations. Class

participation and presentations will be incorporated into regular class activities to help students

monitor their own progress. In addition, this course will help students increase their English

vocabulary and extend their English grammatical knowledge. Because this is a conversation

class, attendance will be mandatory.

Teaching Approach

Project-based learning; Weekly presentations; Team projects; Group discussions

Textbooks – Spring Semester 2023

1. 21

Century Reading – Book 2; Cengage/National Geographic Learning

ISBN #978-1305-265707

2. Impact Issues 1; 3

Edition; Tung Hua Books (this book will be used both semesters)

ISBN #978-981-313-4379

3. Matilda, by Roald Dahl

ISBN #978-0142-410370

Grading Criteria:

50% Attendance, In-class Discussion & Class Participation

30% Homework Assignments and Reading

20% Final / Midterm Test

Late Assignment Policy:

Assignments turned in after class or 1 week late will receive 20% off; 2 weeks late will receive

30% off; 3 weeks late will receive 40% off; 4 weeks late will receive 50% off. No assignments

will be accepted if they are more than 5 weeks late.

Attendance Policy:

Students who are absent for 2 class periods will receive a 10% grade reduction. Missing 3 class

periods will receive a 20% grade reduction. Missing more than 3 classes may result in a failing

grade.

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 167

Course Schedule – Spring 2023

Week 1: Teacher Introduction: Taiwan vs. America PPT; Student Needs Analysis

Presentation: Students Introduce their Classmates

Reading Assignment: Who Moved My Cheese

Matilda: Ch 1

Week 2: Class Discussion: Who Moved My Cheese;

Unit 1 – What Makes a Great Team? + Ted Talk

Team Project – Marshmallow Challenge

Matilda: Ch 2&3

Week 3: Unit 2 – Inspired Leadership + Ted Talk

Class Discussion: Impact #1 – Guy with Green Hair

Matilda: Ch 4&5

Week 4: Presentation from Unit 2 – “A Movement”

Team Project – Desert Island (What articles do I take?)

Matilda: Ch 6

Week 5: Unit 4 – Gaming + TedTalk

Class Discussion: Impact #3 – I’m Not Addicted

Matilda: Ch 7&8

Week 6: Presentation from Unit 4 – “Design an Online Game”

Team Project – Starting a New Civilization

Matilda: Ch 9

Week 7: Unit 7 - Power Poses + Ted Talk

Class Discussion: Impact #15 – To Tell or Not to Tell (When is it OK to lie?)

Moral Dilemma: “Steal or Not Steal the Car”

Matilda: Ch 10

Week 8: Presentation from Unit 7 – Power Poses Exercise (student judges)

Unit 9 – Changing Your Perspective (Rethinking Disabilities) + TedTalk

Matilda: Ch 11

Week 9: Presentation from Unit 9 – Research a Person with Disabilities Who Overcame

Class Discussion: Impact #5 – Who Pays?

Matilda: Ch 12&13

Week 10: NO CLASS (Google Earth Assignment)

Week 11: Presentation – Google Earth Online Tour

Matilda: Ch 14&15

Week 12: Unit 5 – Success + TedTalk

Class Discussion: Impact #7 (What is success?)

Matilda: Ch 16&17

Week 13: Unit 10 – Big Data + TedTalk

Team Project: Who Gets the Loan?

Matilda: Ch 18&19

Week 14: Presentation from Unit 10 – Research an Infographic

Team Project: Which School Programs Do We Eliminate?

Matilda: Ch 20&21

Week 15: MOVIE: Matilda

Week 16: Final Exam: Book vs. Movie

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 168

Reading: Matilda - In-class Discussion Topics

Lesson 1 – Someone who has made a big difference in your life

Lesson 2 – Dishonesty and Revenge

Lesson 3 – Genius (Is it born or learned?)

Lesson 4 – Vanity vs. Pride vs. Confidence

Lesson 5 – Fitting in with others – Is it OK to be different?

Lesson 6 – Teacher’s influence (What teacher most influenced you and why?)

Lesson 7 – Education vs. Indoctrination (Plan for your life after graduation)

Lesson 8 – Bullying vs. Intimidation

Lesson 9 – Oppression (Common good vs. Individualism)

Lesson 10 – Reward vs. Punishment

Lesson 11 – Power and misuse of power (Do you have power?)

Lesson 12 – Rich vs. Poor

Lesson 13 – Upbringing (How does it affect someone? Can you change the results of your

upbringing?)

Lesson 14 – Practice vs. Skill (Does practice make perfect?)

Lesson 15 – Emergency plan vs. Contingency plan (What is your plan?)

Lesson 16 – Do people always get what they deserve? Are there always happy endings?

INDIRECT COMMUNICATION AS A LEARNING TOOL IN TAIWAN 169

APPENDIX E: Open-Ended Student Interview Questions

English School-wide Elective Course

1. Why did you choose to major in English and/or take this class?

2. What were you hoping to learn in this class?

3. What activities in this class helped you move from simply memorized knowledge to

being capable of using that knowledge?

4. How were you able to apply what you learned?

5. What skills have you learned and/or developed this semester that you will be able to use

in the future?

6. What activities did the teacher use to help you put what you learned into practice?

7. In what ways can you apply this knowledge to real-world situations?

8. Describe the process and/or activities that helped you become more capable of using

English in the real-world?

Public Speaking Class

1. What activities in this class helped you become a more capable speaker?

2. Describe the process and/or activities that helped you go from a beginning speaker to a

capable speaker.

3. What actions did you take to achieve becoming a better presenter?

4. How did you learn to be a better speaker?

5. Explain the teacher’s role in helping you be a better public speaker.