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TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – January 2011, volume 10 Issue 1

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INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN IN EDUCATION: NEW MODEL

Prof. Dr. Aytekin İŞMAN

Sakarya University, Turkey

isman@sakarya.edu.tr & ismanay@hotmail.com, www.aytekinisman.com

INTRODUCTION

Instruction is a plan of teaching & learning activities in which learning is organized. This instructional plan

motivates students to learn. The aim of instruction is to make the learning process take place. According to

Gustafson (1996), instructional design is:

1. analyzing what is to be taught/learned;

2. determining how it is to be taught/learned;

3. conducting tryout and revision; and

4. assessing whether learners do learn.

Instruction is a systematic process in which every component (i.e. teachers, students, materials, and learning

environment) is crucial to successfully learning (Dick & Carey, 1996). Instruction deals with teaching and

learning activities. These activities should assist students to learn knowledge and move this knowledge from

short term memory to long term memory. To do that, students need to learn how to rehearse, encode, process

and feedback new knowledge to be able to remember when they need.

In the instructional design process, there are a lot of factors that should be taken into consideration. These factors

are closely related to each other and affect each other to a certain extent. These factors should be organized in the

instructional design steps. For example, if the goals and objectives are not chosen, specified or written properly,

then the next and other steps will contain some problems because of the inappropriate and incomplete items in

the previous step. In the instructional design, the steps are all interrelated with each other. It is very important to

order the steps in a way that will be logical and in relation with other steps. In other words, instructional design

is a big responsibility to design teaching and learning activities. All steps should be thought and chosen carefully

and should be ordered in a meaningful way. Every detail can play an important role during the implementation.

Every decision should be given due to a reason, not just for the sake of doing so. The designer should be fully

aware of the relationship among the steps. During the teaching and learning process, the designer should collect

reliable data about the students, their backgrounds and their prerequisite learning. Due to the reason that they

play an important role on the outcomes of instruction, they should seriously taken into consideration and help

designer to create a model that will help them to keep a balance between them. An instructional design model

gives method and implication to design instruction. During the instructional design process, I.D. models help

educators to visualize the problem. If the instructional design model solves the learning-teaching problems, it

means that it is an effective instruction.

Effective instruction is instruction that enables students to acquire specified skills, knowledge, and attitudes

(Reiser & Dick, 1996). During the effective instruction, students can be motivated well. To motivate students in

the instruction process, all factors must be determined well. During determination process, there are four

important principles that play key role. These principles are listed below:

1. Begin the planning process by clearly identifying the general goals and specific objectives students will be

expected to attain;

2. Plan instructional activities that are intended to help students attain those objectives;

3. Develop assessment instruments that measure attainment of those objectives;

4. Revise instruction in light of student performance on each objective and student attitudes towards

instructional activities (Reiser & Dick, 1996).

Teachers should follow these principles in order to apply successfully their instruction. The major goal of

instructional design is to demonstrate planning, developing, evaluating, and managing the instructional process.

At the end of this process, it can be seen the student learning performance in instructional activities based upon

defined goals and objectives. Instructional design pays attention to instruction from the learner perspective than

from the content perspective which is traditional approach. According to Kemp, Morrison and Ross (1994), it

involves many factors that influence learning outcomes, including such questions as these:

1. What level of readiness do individual students have for accomplishing the objectives?

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2. What teaching and learning methods are most appropriate in terms of objectives and student characteristics?

3. What media or other resources are most suitable?

4. What support, beyond the teacher and the available resources, is needed for successful learning?

5. How is achievement of objectives determined?

6. What revisions are necessary if a tryout of the program does not match expectations?

These questions concerns with student learning because the major goal of instructional design is to accomplish

the identified goals and objectives in the instructional activities. In the instructional design process, there are four

key elements. These are:

1. whom to teach,

2. what to teach,

3. how to teach, and

4. how to evaluate.

In whom to teach process, knowing student personality is important because the target learners are students.

Without students, instructional activities can’t be implemented. To design effective instruction, teachers should

get information about student characteristics.

In what to teach, instructional goals and objectives are important. Teachers first must make decision on their

goals and objectives in instructional design. Instructional goals and objectives give teacher information on what

to teach during instructional activities.

In how to teach, teacher gets information on how to deliver goals and objectives to students in the instruction.

Instructional delivery methods indicate teacher what kinds of teaching and learning methods will be used.

In how to evaluate, assessment tools are playing key role because teacher can get information on whether

students accomplished the goals and objectives or not with the tools. During the educational measurement and

evaluation process, assessing tools such as multiple choice, short-answer items, true-false items, matching items,

essay questions, problem solving questions and others must be used to determine student learning activities in

the instruction by teacher. These assessing tools should have reliability and validity characteristics to determine

learning outcomes.

These four elements are usually used to create an instructional design model. There are four kinds of

instructional models (Gustafson, 1996). These are classroom model, product model, instructional systems

models, and trends and issues. The classroom models such as Gerlack & Ely, Kemp, Heinich, and Reiser &Dick

are designed teacher oriented based. Teachers can use this model to design instruction. The product models such

as Bergman & Moore and Van Patten are interested in more producing instructional products either for specific

clients or for commercial marketing. Instructional system model such as Branson, Seels & Glasgow, Bridggs,

Gagne, Smith &Ragan, Gentry and Dick Carey are designed for a complete college course. This model always

requires a team effort to design instruction. There are some trends and issues in instructional design models.

Hypermedia or internet is one of them. It affects instructional design. It is another area generating considerable

excitement and innovation in the design of education and training environments (Gustafson, 1996). The other

one is constructivism. It has also affected instruction process. It has gained considerable attention from educators

dissatisfied with behaviorism and cognitive psychology. It is based on the belief that all individuals construct

their own reality (Gustafson, 1996).

NEW INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN MODEL

The major goal of new model (Figure 1) is to point up how to plan, develop, implement, evaluate, and organize

full learning activities effectively so that it will ensure competent performance by students.

The theoretical foundation of new model comes from behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism views.

Behaviorism as a theory of learning takes in to consideration on the relationship between stimulus & response,

the reinforcement factor and designing environmental conditions. Those are used to motivate students to learn

more in this model.

The behaviorist view of instructional design has five factors. These steps are analysis, design, development,

implementation, and evaluation. In the analysis steps, instructional designer identifies input information (goals,

objectives, the characteristic of teachers, the characteristic of students, materials, and others). In the design step,

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instructional designer designs teaching and learning activities. In the development step, instructional designer

develops instructional materials and teaching-learning methods. In the implementation step, teacher implements

teaching and learning activities. In the last step, instructional designer checks learning outputs.

The new instructional design model uses analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation factors

to design learning and teaching activities.

Cognitivism is interested in motivation, intellectual learning process (short term memory, retrieve and long term

memory), experiences and contents. This new model is interested in how to store the information into long term

memory. To store the information into long term memory, instructional activities are designed in the model.

The cognitivist view of instructional design is construct new knowledge with their own experiences. Learner

should learn how to think and how to learn to solve their learning problems. The role of instructor is to design

meaningful experiences in learning environments. Designed meaningful experiences should motivate students to

construct new knowledge in their long term memory. The role of students is to join discussions and colloboration

activities.

The new instructional design model is inretested in constructing new knowledge, desiging meaningful learning

experiences, motivation and organizing

Constructivism is interested in personal applications. According to McGriff (2001), the learning process must be

concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and enable to learn. This is one of the

things that new model uses in instructional activities. Students become active participants, reflect their own

thought and become autonomous. During the instructional activities, students try to get their own experience

things. Their personal experience motivates students to involve in the process actively. By the help of

experience, they will relate their own personal meanings to the learned information and it might be easier to keep

in mind, because it will be much more meaningful.

The constructivist view of instructional design is learning by doing. In other words, active learning is the hearth

of constructivists’ instructional design process. For this reason, constructivists are interested in active process

during learning activities. Learners should be active and use cognitive activity to construct new knowledge.

During cognitive activity, learning environment is playing a key role to contruct new knowledge. Learning

environment must represent real life activities. In this environment, what is learned and how it is learned should

be design together because how it is learned depends on what is learned.

The new instructional design model is based on active learning. During teaching and learning activities, learner

is active and uses cognitive learning to construct new knowledge. To consruct new knowledge, educational

technology materials are used. These materials are related with goals and objectives.

New model (Figure 1) is described a five-step systematic planning process. These are:

1. input,

2. process,

3. output,

4. feedback,

5. learning.

This process can be used to plan a variety of instructional approaches, ranging from teacher lectures to hands-on

student-centered activities. In addition, as a result of using this process, teachers should be able to develop

effective instruction. This effective instruction can help students to learn more and keep the new knowledge into

long term memory. These students will be motivated to join class activities.

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Figure 1: New Instructional design Isman model

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The first step in Isman model is to clarify input (Figure-2). The input step is the foundation of instructional

activities for learning and teaching. The designer also identifies learner characteristics.

Figure 2: The Input Step of ISMAN Model

This is a key step in the instructional planning because it gives teacher information about the effectiveness of the

instruction. In other words, these steps can help instructor to identify what to teach and how to teach

instructional activities. The input step has five stages. These are:

1. identify needs,

2. identify contents,

3. identify Goals-Objectives,

4. identify teaching methods,

5. identify instructional media.

The first is to identify needs. It is an important factor in the total design process. Instructional designer uses

survey, observation and interview methods to determine what the students need to learn. The definition of needs

may be derived from a needs assessment with regard to particular curriculum. The second stage is to identify

contents. The contents are derived from students’ needs. The main goal of this step is to clarify what to teach.

The third stage is to identify goals and objectives. The identification of goals and objectives is an important

stage in the new instructional design model. The main idea of identify goals and objectives is to define what

students will be able to do after instructional process. The outcomes are ussually clarified as behavioral

objectives, learning objectives, or performance objectives. There are five categories of learning outcomes.

These are intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, verbal information, motor skills and attitudes. Goals and

objectives ussually contain skills, knowledge and attitudes. Skills could be psychomotor skills and intellectual

skills. When students learn psychomotor skills, they develop muscular actions. When students learn intellectual

skills, they develop cognitive activity such as discrimination, implementation and solving problem. The goals

and objectives are derived from need assesment and contents. The fourth stage is to identify teaching methods.

After the needs, content and goals have been identified, teaching methods are determined. Teaching methods

should be related with content and goals because goals and objectives will be tought with the appropriate

method. The last stage is to identify instructional media. It is a delivery method in instructional design process.

In other words, it tells us how to deliver the instruction to students. There are two groups of instructional media.

These are clasical instructional media and modern instructional media. The classical instructional media

includes books, journals, graph, model, picture, poster, cartoon, newspaper, dioramas, trip, blackboard and

others. Modern instructional media includes multimedia, films, radio, telephone, television, computer, data

projection, internet and others. The instructional media is ussually used to enhance learning by instructional

designer. The main goal of media is to apply communication and learning. Identify instructional media is based

upon a review of needs, contents, goals and teaching methods. These instructional media should motivate

students to learn and keep the new knowledge in the long term memory.

The second step in Isman model is to process (Figure 3).

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Figure 3: The Process Step of ISMAN Model

The process step has three stages. These are test prototypes, redesigning of instruction and teaching activities.

The first is to test prototypes. In this step, teacher will be ready to try out the planned instruction with the

students The main goal of first stage is to find out which stages are working and which stages are not working.

In other words, the problems in instructional design are identified during testing prototypes. Testing prototypes

tells instructor what students realy want to learn and how to get there. The second stage is to redesigning of

instruction. After problems are identified, instructional designer reorganizes instructional activities. To

reorganize instructional activities, pre-testing plays a key role to design an effective instruction. If an effective

instruction is designed well, instructional goals will be achieved successfully. The last stage is to teaching

activities. Teacher begins teaching activities interms of content, teaching methods, goals and objectives with

instructional media.

The third step in Isman model is to output (Figure 4).

Figure 4: The Output Step of ISMAN Model

The output step contains two stages. These are assessment and revising instruction. In the first stage, teacher

assessts teching and learning activities in the instructional design model. Instructional designer uses formative

and summative evaluation methods to check goals and objectives. This process requires teacher to implement

assessment tools to determine whether the students did demonstrate the skills, knowledge, and attitudes that

teacher described in instruction goals and objectives or not. When the students participate in the instructional

activities, teachers want to know whether they learned what the instructional plan expected them to learn. To

determine student learning, educational measurement and evaluation process should be implemented by teachers.

This process gives teachers results on what students learn from the instruction. Teachers should analyze the

results and make decision on where to go in the instruction. In the last stage, instructional designer evaluate all

instructional activities. Instructional designer finds problems during the instructional design process. Then,

instructional designer solve the problems then redisgn the instruction.

The fourth step in Isman model is to feedback.

Figure 5: The Feedback Step of ISMAN Model

The feedback step has one stage. This is “Go back to related step”. The feedback process involves revise

instruction based upon the data collected during the implementation phase. If, during the phase, teacher finds that

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students are not learning what the plan wanted them to learn, and/or they are not enjoying the learning process,

teacher will want to go back to related step and try to revise some aspect of their instruction so as to better enable

their students to accomplish their goals. If there is a problem in input step, instructional designer will go back to

input step. Then, instructional designer will make changes and start process from input. This process will be

done until all goals and objectives are learned by learners. During this cycle, instructional designer may go back

to any steps to where a problem is occured.

The fifth and final step in Isman model is learning.

Figure 6: The Output Step of ISMAN Model

The learning step has one stage. This is “Long Term Learning”. The learning process involves full learning. In

this process, teacher wants to make sure that their students have learned what the instructional plan wanted them

to learn. If, during the phase, teacher finds that their students accomplished their goals in the instructional

activities, teacher will want to go new instructional activities. At the end of this step, long term learning is

accomlished by instructional designer.

SUMMARY

The main goal of new model is to organize long term and full learning activities. The new instructional design

model is based on the theoretical foundation of behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism. During teaching

and learning activities, learner is active and uses cognitive, constructivist or behaviorist learning to contruct new

knowledge. To construct new knowledge, educational technology materials are used. These materials are

related with goals and objectives.

Isman model is based on instructional system theory. It is occured within the five stages. These are input,

process, output, feedback and learning.

REFERENCES

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USA.

Dick, Walter & Carey, Lou. (1996).The Systematic Design of Instruction. Fourth Edition. Harper Collins

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Gagne, R.M.; Briggs, L.J.; Wager, W.W.; Golas, Katharine C.; & Keller, John M. (2005). Principles of

Instructional Design. Wadsworth USA.

Gustafson, K.L. (1996). International Encyclopedia of Educational Technology. Edited by Plomp, T. & Ely, A.P.

Pergamon, USA.

Kemp, J.E.; Morrison, G.R. & Ross, S.M. (1994). Designing Effective Instruction. Merill, New York USA.

McGriff, J.S. (2001). ISD Knowledge Base / Behaviorism. URL http://www.personel.psu.edu. (Retrived on

October 10 2004).

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